Entheseal variation and locomotor behavior during growth.

Entheses are acknowledged as skeletal markers capable of revealing several biological and behavioral aspects of past individuals and populations. However, entheseal changes (ECs) of juvenile individuals have not yet been studied with a systematic approach. This contribution aims at investigating the morphological changes occurring at the femoral insertion of the gluteus maximus and tibial origin of the soleus muscles to highlight a potential link between the morphological features of those entheses and skeletal maturity in relation to sex, age, and locomotor developmental patterns. The sample consisted of 119 skeletons (age-at-death: 0-30 years) belonging to the Documented Human Skeletal Collection of the Certosa Cemetery (Bologna, Italy). The entheseal variation during the last stages of skeletal maturation in young adults was assessed using existing recording standards. A recording protocol for each enthesis was developed for immature individuals to subdivide the morphological variability into discrete categories. Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate statistical analyses were performed to investigate the variation of entheseal morphologies and measurements in relation to bone metrics, degree of epiphyseal closure, sex, age, and locomotor developmental patterns. A statistically significant relationship was observed between ECs morphological patterns and age for both entheses, while sexual differences were negligible. A relationship between ECs morphological pattern and locomotor milestones emerged only for the gluteus maximus. Even though further testing is needed on other documented skeletal collections, our protocol could be usefully applied in forensic and archaeological fields and serving as important reference for evolutionary investigations.

Comparability of skeletal fibulae surfaces generated by different source scanning (dual-energy CT scan vs. high resolution laser scanning) and 3D geometric morphometric validation.

This work aims to test accuracy and comparability of 3D models of human skeletal fibulae generated by clinical CT and laser scanner virtual acquisitions. Mesh topology, segmentation and smoothing protocols were tested to assess variation among meshes generated with different scanning methods and procedures, and to evaluate meshes-interchangeability in 3D geometric morphometric analysis. A sample of 13 left human fibulae were scanned separately with Revolution Discovery CT dual energy (0.625 mm resolution) and ARTEC Space Spider 3D structured light laser scanner (0.1 mm resolution). Different segmentation methods, including half-maximum height (HMH) and MIA-clustering protocols, were compared to their high-resolution standard generated with laser-scanner by calculating topological surface deviations. Different smoothing algorithms were also evaluated, such as Laplacian and Taubin smoothing. A total of 142 semilandmarks were used to capture the shape of both proximal and distal fibular epiphyses. After Generalized Procrustes superimposition, the Procrustes coordinates of the proximal and distal fibular epiphyses were used separately to assess variation due to scanning methods and the operator error. Smoothing algorithms at low iteration do not provide significant variation among reconstructions, but segmentation protocol may influence final mesh quality (0.09-0.24 mm). Mean deviation among CT-generated meshes that were segmented with MIA-clustering protocol, and laser scanner-generated ones, is optimal (0.42 mm, ranging 0.35-0.56 mm). Principal component analysis reveals that homologous samples scanned with the two methods cluster together for both the proximal and distal fibular epiphyses. Similarly, Procrustes ANOVA reveals no shape differences between scanning methods and replicates, and only 1.38-1.43% of shape variation is due to scanning device. Topological similarities support the comparability of CT- and laser scanner-generated meshes and validate its simultaneous use in shape analysis with potential clinical relevance. We precautionarily suggest that dedicated trials should be performed in each study when merging different data sources prior to analyses.

Unique foot posture in Neanderthals reflects their body mass and high mechanical stress.

Neanderthal foot bone proportions and morphology are mostly indistinguishable from those of Homo sapiens, with the exception of several distinct Neanderthal features in the talus. The biomechanical implications of these distinct talar features remain contentious, fueling debate around the adaptive meaning of this distinctiveness. With the aim of clarifying this controversy, we test phylogenetic and behavioral factors as possible contributors, comparing tali of 10 Neanderthals and 81 H. sapiens (Upper Paleolithic and Holocene hunter-gatherers, agriculturalists, and postindustrial group) along with the Clark Howell talus (Omo, Ethiopia). Variation in external talar structures was assessed through geometric morphometric methods, while bone volume fraction and degree of anisotropy were quantified in a subsample (n = 45). Finally, covariation between point clouds of site-specific trabecular variables and surface landmark coordinates was assessed. Our results show that although Neanderthal talar external and internal morphologies were distinct from those of H. sapiens groups, shape did not significantly covary with either bone volume fraction or degree of anisotropy, suggesting limited covariation between external and internal talar structures. Neanderthal external talar morphology reflects ancestral retentions, along with various adaptations to high levels of mobility correlated to their presumably unshod hunter-gatherer lifestyle. This pairs with their high site-specific trabecular bone volume fraction and anisotropy, suggesting intense and consistently oriented locomotor loading, respectively. Relative to H.sapiens, Neanderthals exhibit differences in the talocrural joint that are potentially attributable to cultural and locomotor behavior dissimilarity, a talonavicular joint that mixes ancestral and functional traits, and a derived subtalar joint that suggests a predisposition for a pronated foot during stance phase. Overall, Neanderthal talar variation is attributable to mobility strategy and phylogenesis, while H. sapiens talar variation results from the same factors plus footwear. Our results suggest that greater Neanderthal body mass and/or higher mechanical stress uniquely led to their habitually pronated foot posture.

Evaluation of the auricular surface method for subadult sex estimation on Italian modern (19th to 20th century) identified skeletal collections.

OBJECTIVES: Sex estimation in subadult skeletal remains is still considered highly problematic. The aim of this research is to test the reliability of the method of subadult sex assessment proposed by Luna and co-workers in 2017, based on the analysis of the auricular surface of the ilium. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Seven ratios and three morphological traits were recorded for 127 subadult individuals (63 males and 64 females), aged between 0 and 17 years, from several Identified Skeletal Collections of the University of Bologna. Nonparametric Mann Whitney test, Kolmogorov Smirnov test, and the Pearson correlation coefficient were used for continuous variables, whereas the Cramer Coefficient was calculated for qualitative variable. A principal component analysis was also performed on ratio values. The statistic ƞ was taken into account for both types of variables. RESULTS: None of the ratios presented significant dimorphic results. Two qualitative variables show statistically significant differences between sexes. The overall morphology proved to be an accurate sex predictor among children aged ≥4 years (78%-86%) and meets the minimum accuracy standard (75%) for subadult sex estimation for individuals between 1 and 17 years of age. The morphology of the retroauricular end of the superior demiface (MRS) can be used with a high level of accuracy for sexing individuals from 1 to 12 years (77%-81%). CONCLUSIONS: The metric variables did not replicate the accuracy values originally obtained by Luna and co-workers. Otherwise, the evaluation of the morphological variables proposed by the authors yielded promising results as a reliable sexing technique for individuals who died before puberty.

Sex estimation by odontometrics of nonadult human remains from a contemporary Italian sample.

OBJECTIVES: The objective was to develop an odontometric technique for sex estimation based on dental measurements from adult individuals, and to evaluate its applicability and reliability for diagnosis of sex of nonadult skeletal remains. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study was conducted on the permanent dentition of 132 individuals (70 males, 62 females) from the identified human skeletal collection of the Certosa Cemetery (Bologna, Italy) of the University of Bologna. Binary logistic regression equations were developed based on dental measurements of the permanent teeth of the adult individuals, and these equations were subsequently applied to the permanent dentition of nonadult individuals to estimate their sex. RESULTS: These data show that the canine teeth of both the maxilla and mandible are the most sexually dimorphic teeth in adults, followed by the mandibular second molar, maxillary and mandibular second and first premolars, and mandibular first molar. These data provided correct assignment of sex in 80.4-94.9% of cases, which depended on the measurements used. Of the 26 nonadult individuals of the experimental sample, sex diagnosis was possible for 22, which represented an applicability rate of 84.6% of the individuals. Comparing the sex of these 22 nonadult individuals estimated by odontometrics with the known biological sex, correct assignment was obtained in 90.9% of cases. CONCLUSION: As a method of sex estimation, odontometric analysis of permanent dentition can be used successfully for nonadult human skeletal remains in both forensic and archeological contexts.

Exploring directional and fluctuating asymmetry in the human palate during growth.

OBJECTIVES: Palate morphology is constantly changing throughout an individual's lifespan, yet its asymmetry during growth is still little understood. In this research, we focus on the study of palate morphology by using 3D geometric morphometric approaches to observe changes at different stages of life, and to quantify the impact of directional and fluctuating asymmetry on different areas at different growth stages. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The sample consists of 183 individuals (1-72 years) from two identified human skeletal collections of 19th and early 20th Century Italian contexts. A 3D-template of 41 (semi)landmarks was applied on digital palate models to observe morphological variation during growth. RESULTS: Asymmetrical components of the morphological structure appears multidirectional on the entire palate surface in individuals <2 years old and become oriented (opposite bilateral direction) between 2 and 6 years of age. Specifically, directional asymmetry differentially impacts palate morphology at different stages of growth. Both the anterior and posterior palate are affected by mild alterations in the first year of life, while between 2 and 6 years asymmetry is segregated in the anterior area, and moderate asymmetry affects the entire palatal surface up to 12 years of age. Our results show that stability of the masticatory system seems to be reached around 13-35 years first by females and then males. From 36 years on both sexes show similar asymmetry on the anterior area. Regarding fluctuating asymmetry, inter-individual variability is mostly visible up to 12 years of age, after which only directional trends can be clearly observed at a group level. DISCUSSION: Morphological structure appears instable during the first year of life and acquires an opposite asymmetric bilateral direction between 2 and 6 years of age. This condition has been also documented in adults; when paired with vertical alteration, anterior/posterior asymmetry seems to characterize palate morphology, which is probably due to mechanical factors during the lifespan. Fluctuating asymmetry is predominant in the first period of life due to a plausible relationship with the strength of morphological instability of the masticatory system. Directional asymmetry, on the other hand, shows that the patterning of group-level morphological change might be explained as a functional response to differential inputs (physiological forces, nutritive and non-nutritive habits, para-masticatory activity as well as the development of speech) in different growth stages. This research has implications with respect to medical and evolutionary fields. In medicine, palate morphology should be considered when planning orthodontic and surgical procedures as it could affect the outcome. As far as an evolutionary perspective is concerned the dominance of directional asymmetries in the masticatory system could provide information on dietary and cultural habits as well as pathological conditions in our ancestors.

The study of the lower limb entheses in the Neanderthal sample from El Sidrón (Asturias, Spain): How much musculoskeletal variability did Neanderthals accumulate?

Entheses have rarely been systematically studied in the field of human evolution. However, the investigation of their morphological variability (e.g., robusticity) could provide new insight into their evolutionary significance in the European Neanderthal populations. The aim of this work is to study the entheses and joint features of the lower limbs of El Sidrón Neanderthals (Spain; 49 ka), using standardized scoring methods developed on modern samples. Paleobiology, growth, and development of both juveniles and adults from El Sidrón are studied and compared with those of Krapina Neanderthals (Croatia, 130 ka) and extant humans. The morphological patterns of the gluteus maximus and vastus intermedius entheses in El Sidrón, Krapina, and modern humans differ from one another. Both Neanderthal groups show a definite enthesis design for the gluteus maximus, with little intrapopulation variability with respect to modern humans, who are characterized by a wider range of morphological variability. The gluteus maximus enthesis in the El Sidrón sample shows the osseous features of fibrous entheses, as in modern humans, whereas the Krapina sample shows the aspects of fibrocartilaginous ones. The morphology and anatomical pattern of this enthesis has already been established during growth in all three human groups. One of two and three of five adult femurs from El Sidrón and from Krapina, respectively, show the imprint of the vastus intermedius, which is absent among juveniles from those Neanderthal samples and in modern samples. The scant intrapopulation and the high interpopulation variability in the two Neanderthal samples is likely due to a long-term history of small, isolated populations with high levels of inbreeding, who also lived in different ecological conditions. The comparison of different anatomical entheseal patterns (fibrous vs. fibrocartilaginous) in the Neanderthals and modern humans provides additional elements in the discussion of their functional and genetic origin.

Estimation of adult age-at-death from entheseal robusticity: A test using an identified Italian skeletal collection.

OBJECTIVES: The present study tests the effectiveness of entheseal robusticity (ER) as a potential predictor of adult age-at-death by applying multiple regression models to a large contemporary identified skeletal sample. MATERIALS AND METHODS: ER was recorded for 23 bilateral postcranial entheses on 481 adult individuals (271 females and 210 males) from the Frassetto identified skeletal collection of Sassari (Italy), following the method of Mariotti et al. 2007. ER scores were used as predictors in multiple regression analyses with age as the dependent variable; the performance of the resulting models was tested through standard error of estimate, the correlation coefficient between predicted and documented age, and the percentage of correctly classified individuals. RESULTS: ER show a higher correlation with age in females, resulting in more accurate estimates when compared with those obtained for males. Age-at-death is overestimated for male individuals under 45 years old and underestimated for older individuals. Regression models including a reduced set of ER sites result in better estimates compared with those using the complete set of variables. DISCUSSION: Results suggest the potential usefulness of ER for the estimation of age, especially for female skeletal remains. If used with caution, ER may be a valid complement to existing methods for the reconstruction of the biological profile of skeletal remains of archaeological and forensic interest.

Variations in epiphyseal fusion and persistence of the epiphyseal line in the appendicular skeleton of two identified modern (19th-20th c.) adult Portuguese and Italian samples.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this work is to study age, sex, and population variations in epiphyseal fusion and persistence of the epiphyseal line in the appendicular skeleton of two identified modern (19th-20th c.) adult skeletal samples, using a specifically designed macroscopic scoring method. The use of epiphyseal closure and persistence of the epiphyseal line as an adult-age marker is also discussed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study examined 981 adult skeletons of both sexes from two identified modern (20th c.) skeletal samples from the Sassari Collection (Museum of Anthropology, University of Bologna, Italy) and the Colecção de Esqueletos Identificados (Museum of Anthropology, University of Coimbra, Portugal). Our scoring method considers a five-degree scale, from nonfusion (Degree 0) to complete fusion (Degree 4). In addition, the persistence of the epiphyseal line, a feature that is not commonly collected during routine anthropological analyses, is taken into account here as Degree 3. RESULTS: Intra- and interobserver errors of 1.2% and 5.2%, respectively, were found, suggesting a good reproducibility of this scoring method. Some sites show variable degrees of epiphyseal fusion still in adult skeletons (e.g., secondary center of ossification of the clavicle, iliac crest, ischial tuberosity, distal epiphysis of the radius and ulna). CONCLUSIONS: Population differences have been observed, showing a delay in the complete epiphyseal closure for the Sassari sample compared to the Coimbra sample. Degree 3 seems to be a good adult-age indicator for individuals less than 35-year-old.

Tooth fractures in the Krapina Neandertals.

Dental fractures can be produced during life or post-mortem. Ante-mortem chipping may be indicative of different uses of the dentition in masticatory and non-masticatory activities related to variable diets and behaviors. The Krapina collection (Croatia, 130,000 years BP), thanks to the large number of teeth (293 teeth and tooth fragments) within it, offers an excellent sample to investigate dental fractures systematically. Recorded were the distribution, position and severity of the ante-mortem fractures according to standardized methods. High frequencies of teeth with chipping in both Krapina adults and subadults suggest that the permanent and deciduous dentition were heavily subjected to mechanical stress. This is particularly evident when the frequencies of chipping are compared with those in modern humans (Upper Paleolithic and historic samples) that we analysed using the same methods. The distribution of chipping in the Krapina sample (anterior teeth are more affected) and its position (labial) suggest a systematic use of the anterior teeth for non-masticatory tasks.

A muscular imprint on the anterolateral surface of the proximal femurs of the Krapina Neandertal collection.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study is to report and interpret a feature on the anterolateral surface of the proximal femurs of the Krapina hominid collection that we briefly described in 2006 (Periodicum Biologorum, 108, 319-329). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We recorded the presence or absence of the feature in all the proximal femurs of the Krapina collection (six specimens recordable) and in 622 modern human adult femurs. RESULTS: The feature consists in a series of crests delimitating three raised or depressed areas. This feature has been found in three out of four adult Neandertal femurs observable. The two observable subadult Neandertal femurs do not show this character. None of the modern femurs displayed the feature. CONCLUSION: We interpret this feature as a muscular imprint, probably representing the m. vastus intermedius origin and discuss a possible interpretation. We did not find any other references for such imprint in the existing literature regarding the Neandertal femurs.

Variation of skeletal degenerative joint disease features in an identified Italian modern skeletal collection.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship of degenerative joint disease (DJD) features (marginal lipping, porosity, surface osteophytes, eburnation, and loss of joint morphology) with sex, age, and occupation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We devised a recording method for scoring the single features in the shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle of an Italian skeletal sample of 332 individuals (males = 161, females = 171) of known sex, age, and occupation from the Frassetto collection (Sassari, Sardinia, 19th-20th century). RESULTS: Our data revealed that: (1) the frequency of all features increases with age; (2) porosity is the first feature to appear, being in general the most frequent feature in young adults; (3) sex differences are especially found in the upper limbs of mature and elderly adults; (4) marginal lipping and surface osteophytes show a lesser age correlation and, in general, higher frequencies in the left lower limb; (5) no differences were found among different occupations. DISCUSSION: We explain these results in light of different metabolic and adaptive processes in relation to age and sex. Static (weight-bearing) rather than dynamic mechanical stress could play a pivotal role in the distribution of the features observed in the lower limbs. The considerable increase in marginal lipping and surface osteophytes in elderly adults may be an adaptation for sustaining mechanical loading, balancing the loss of bone tissue which is characteristic of ageing processes (osteopenia, osteoporosis). Am J Phys Anthropol, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Am J Phys Anthropol 160:683-693, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Skeletal evidence of tuberculosis in a modern identified human skeletal collection (Certosa cemetery, Bologna, Italy).

The diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) in osteoarcheological series relies on the identification of osseous lesions caused by the disease. The study of identified skeletal collections provides the opportunity to investigate the distribution of skeletal lesions in relation to this disease. The aim of this study was to examine the skeletal evidence for TB in late adolescent and adult individuals from the identified human collection of the Certosa cemetery of Bologna (Italy, 19th-20th c.). The sample group consists of 244 individuals (138 males, 106 females) ranging from 17 to 88 years of age. The sample was divided into three groups on the basis of the recorded cause of death: TB (N = 64), pulmonary non-TB (N = 29), and other diseases (N = 151). Skeletal lesions reported to be related to TB were analyzed. The vertebral lesions were classified into three types: enlarged foramina (EnF, vascular foramina with diameter of 3-5 mm), erosions (ER), and other foramina (OtF, cavities of various shapes > 3 mm). A CT scan analysis was also performed on vertebral bodies. Some lesions were seldom present in our sample (e.g., tuberculous arthritis). OtF (23.7%) and subperiosteal new bone formation on ribs (54.2%) are significantly more frequent in the TB group with respect to the other groups. The CT scan analysis showed that the vertebrae of individuals who have died of TB may have internal cavities in the absence of external lesions. These traits represent useful elements in the paleopathological diagnosis of TB.

Environmental stress increases variability in the expression of dental cusps.

Teeth are an important model for developmental studies but, despite an extensive literature on the genetics of dental development, little is known about the environmental influences on dental morphology. Here we test whether and to what extent the environment plays a role in producing morphological variation in human teeth. We selected a sample of modern human skulls and used dental enamel hypoplasia as an environmental stress marker to identify two groups with different stress levels, referred to as SG ("stressed" group) and NSG ("nonstressed" group). We collected data on the occurrence and the relative development of 15 morphological traits on upper molars using a standard methodology (ASU-DAS system) and then we compared the frequencies of the traits in the two groups. Overall, the results suggest that (a) stressors like malnutrition and/or systemic diseases have a significant effect on upper molar morphology; (b) stress generates a developmental response which increases the morphological variability of the SG; and (c) the increase in variability is directional, since individuals belonging to the SG have more developed and extra cusps. These results are consistent with the expectations of the current model of dental development.

Histotaphonomic analysis of bone bioerosion reveals a regional framework of diverse deathways in the Neolithic of Southeast Italy.

The wide diversity of Neolithic funerary practices is increasingly recognised. In Southeast Italy, recent studies have drawn attention to the co-existence of multiple ways of treating the dead within single sites and across the region. In this study, we address how such diverse deathways form a regional framework of ritual practice through histotaphonomic analysis of bone bioerosion. Samples were obtained from articulated, semi-articulated and disarticulated remains from four sites in Apulia which each presented different modes of treatment and disposal of the dead. Bone thin sections were analysed by light microscopy to characterise microstructural preservation through features including bacterial bioerosion, staining, inclusions, and Wedl tunnelling. We investigate the early post-mortem histories of individuals whose remains ended up in various states of dis/articulation and diverse depositional contexts. Disarticulated remains frequently displayed arrested or extensive bacterial bioerosion, which was also found in articulated and semi-articulated skeletons. Additionally, remains deposited in similar contexts, as well as articulated and disarticulated remains deposited together in the same context, often showed different histotaphonomic characteristics, suggesting diverse early post-mortem trajectories. As a result, we argue that Neolithic deathways in southeastern Italy incorporated a high level of diversity in the early post-mortem treatment of the body. A framework for funerary practices emerges, whereby disarticulated remains probably originated from bodies which had been buried previously and subjected to varying extents of shelter, exposure to invertebrates, and duration of burial. However, we acknowledge the ongoing research into the origins of bacterial bioerosion and the problem of equifinality, which leaves open the possibility for further scenarios of early post-mortem treatment.

Osteobiography of a 19th century elderly woman with pertrochanteric fracture and osteoporosis: a multidisciplinary approach.

In this paper the osteobiography of an elderly woman recovered from a cemetery tomb where she was buried in 1850, affected by hip fracture and osteoporosis, is described. The overall anthropological characteristics of the individual have been investigated. Macroscopic, radiographic, tomographic, microscopic, and chemical and structural examinations have been performed to give a detailed account of the condition of the skeleton. A non-union pertrochanteric fracture not surgically treated and probably due to senile osteoporosis was diagnosed. The consequences of the fracture to the bones show that this individual likely survived several years following the injury. The osseous features we describe (remodelled bone at the fracture site, asymmetry of entheseal changes likely related to the particular walking pattern of the individual) may be useful in personal identification of skeletons of legal interest. Regarding the recognition of osteoporosis in unearthed skeletons, our study underlines that the cortical thickness, microscopic features, degree of crystallinity and Ca/P ratio represent more useful elements than the mean bone density, mineral/matrix ratio and mineral maturity, which are more sensitive to diagenetic changes that affect the mineral phase post-mortem.

A pathological Neandertal thumb phalanx from Moula-Guercy (France).

OBJECTIVE: To discuss a Neandertal pathological adult first pollical proximal phalanx (I2-104) from the Baume de Moula-Guercy (Ardèche, France) and evaluate the possible causes of this pathology. METHODS: Macroscopic analyses of external features, as well as CT imaging, were used in the analysis RESULTS: The presence of asymmetric eburnation on the distal epiphysis associated with an osteophyte on the palmar surface, as well as the absence of periosteal bone reaction visible on CT images, is consistent with osteoarthritis. CONCLUSION: Osteoarthritis (OA) can have different origins and the cause is difficult to identify. The pathology of the Moula-Guercy I2-104 phalanx may be due to a genetic predisposition for OA known in Neandertals and associated with short limb bones. The OA could have been aggravated by the age of this individual and by an inflammatory reaction caused by repeated movements and intense vibrations provoked by high-frequency knapping or by other use of the hands SIGNIFICANCE: The I2-104 phalanx is the first Neandertal pollical phalanx known to display OA, although joints of this bone are frequently affected by this pathology in modern humans. Thus, greater insight into the presence and consequences of Neandertal behaviors is offered LIMITATION: It is impossible to give a definitive conclusion on the cause(s) of the OA in this case. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: More data is needed concerning OA within Neandertals and its relationship with behavior and genetics.

On the traces of lost identities: chronological, anthropological and taphonomic analyses of the Late Neolithic/Early Eneolithic fragmented and commingled human remains from the Farneto rock shelter (Bologna, northern Italy).

The present study examines the prehistoric human skeletal remains retrieved starting from the 1920s in the deposit of the Farneto rock shelter, situated in the area of the 'Parco dei Gessi Bolognesi e Calanchi dell'Abbadessa' (San Lazzaro di Savena, Bologna, northern Italy). An exact dating and a reliable interpretation of the assemblage had not been reached so far because of the lack of contextual data useful for dating purposes, the inaccurate recovery procedures of the remains and their state of preservation. In fact, the skeletal remains from the Farneto rock shelter are highly fragmented and commingled, whereas reliable information about their original position and their recovery procedures are not available. Despite these difficulties, radiocarbon analyses allowed the precise dating of the remains to a final phase of the Neolithic and an early phase of the Eneolithic period in Emilia Romagna (northern Italy). The study of the assemblage enabled to clarify the use of the context for funerary purposes. Moreover, the anthropological and taphonomic analyses of the skeletal remains shed light on the biological profile of the individuals and on some events that occurred after their death. In particular, the analysis of perimortem lesions highlighted the existence of intentional interventions related to corpse treatment, referable to dismembering/disarticulation and scarnification, i.e. cleaning of bones from soft tissues. Finally, the comparison with other Italian and European Neo/Eneolithic funerary contexts enabled a better understanding of these complex ritual practices. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12520-023-01727-2.

New insights on Celtic migration in Hungary and Italy through the analysis of non-metric dental traits.

The Iron Age is characterized by an extended interweaving of movements by Celts in Europe. Several waves of Celts from Western and Central Europe migrated southeast and west from the core area of the La Téne culture (between Bourgogne and Bohemia). Through the analysis of non-metric dental traits, this work aims to understand the biological relationship among Celtic groups arrived in Italy and the Carpathian Basin, as well as between local populations and Celtic newcomers. A total of 10 non-metric dental traits were analyzed to evaluate biological affinities among Celts (Sopron-Krautacker and Pilismarót-Basaharc) and Scythians-related populations from Hungary (Tápiószele), Celts from continental Europe (Switzerland and Austria), two Iron Age Etruscan-Celtic sites from northern Italy (Monterenzio Vecchio and Monte Bibele), 13 Iron Age central-southern Italic necropolises, and the northern Italian Bronze Age necropolis of Scalvinetto. Strontium isotopes were measured on individuals from the necropolis of Monte Bibele to infer their local or non-local origin. Results highlight the existence of statistically significant differences between Celts and autochthonous Italian groups. Celtic groups from Hungary and Italy (i.e., non-local individuals of Monterenzio Vecchio and Monte Bibele) share a similar biological background, supporting the historical records mentioning a common origin for Celts migrated to the eastern and southern borders of today's Europe. The presence of a supposed Steppean ancestry both in Celts from Hungary and Celts from northern Italy corroborates the hypothesis of the existence of a westward migration of individuals and genes from the Steppe towards northern Italy during the Bronze and Iron Age, which contributed to the biological variability of pre-Celtic and later Celtic populations, respectively. Conversely, individuals from central-southern Italy show an autochthonous pre-Iron Age background. Lastly, this work supports the existence of Celtic migratory routes in northern Italy, as shown by biological and cultural admixture between Celts and Italics living together.

Morphologies in-between: The impact of the first steps on the human talus.

OBJECTIVE: The development of bipedalism is a very complex activity that contributes to shaping the anatomy of the foot. The talus, which starts ossifying in utero, may account for the developing stages from the late gestational phase onwards. Here, we explore the early development of the talus in both its internal and external morphology to broaden the knowledge of the anatomical changes that occur during early development. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The sample consists of high-resolution microCT scans of 28 modern juvenile tali (from 36 prenatal weeks to 2 years), from a broad chronological range from the Late Roman period to the 20th century. We applied geometric morphometric and whole-bone trabecular analysis to investigate the early talar morphological changes. RESULTS: In the youngest group (<6 postnatal months), the immature external shell is accompanied by an isotropic internal structure, with thin and densely packed trabeculae. After the initial attempts of locomotion, bone volume fraction decreases, while anisotropy and trabecular thickness increase. These internal changes correspond to the maturation of the external shell, which is now more defined and shows the development of the articular surfaces. DISCUSSION: The internal and external morphology of the human talus reflects the diverse load on the foot during the initial phases of the bipedal locomotion, with the youngest group potentially reflecting the lack of readiness of the human talus to bear forces and perform bipedal walking. These results highlight the link between mechanical loading and bone development in the human talus during the acquisition of bipedalism, providing new insight into the early phases of talar development.