Cuffed oropharyngeal airway (COPA) placement is delayed by wearing antichemical protective gear.

BACKGROUND: Airway management, the first step in resuscitation, may entail special difficulties in mass casualty situations, even in experienced hands. Of the available airway devices, the cuffed oropharyngeal airway (COPA) appears the easiest one to insert, allowing a hands-free anaesthesiologist. A study was undertaken to evaluate the success of airway control with COPA when anaesthetists wore either surgical attire or antichemical protective gear. METHODS: Twelve anaesthetists with 2-5 years of residency inserted COPA in 24 anaesthetised patients in a random crossover prospective manner. The duration of airway management was measured from the time the device was grasped to obtaining a normal capnography recording; time to proper fixation was also recorded. RESULTS: Time to COPA placement was significantly shorter when the anaesthetists wore surgical attire than when they wore protective gear (28 (10) s vs 56 (34) s, p<0.05). Time to proper fixation of the COPA to patients' faces also differed significantly (19 (14) s with surgical attire vs 34 (16) s with protective gear, p<0.05). First-time COPA insertion failure was statistically similar in both groups. There was no hypoxaemia. CONCLUSIONS: Antichemical protective gear slowed proper placement of COPA and its fixation compared with surgical attire. COPA may be a temporarily useful device in non-conventional settings, but functional reassessment is required when injured patients reach medical facilities.

N-acetyl-L-cysteine for preventing lung reperfusion injury after liver ischemia-reperfusion: a possible dual protective mechanism in a dose-response study.

BACKGROUND: Acute lung reperfusion injury (ALI) frequently follows an ischemic event in another organ, such as organ transplantation. We recently demonstrated that lung priming with N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) prevented liver ischemia-reperfusion (IR)-induced ALI pending on reduced glutathione (GSH) amount of replenishment. We now assessed the therapeutic effect of NAC-in preventing ALI caused by liver IR-if administered to the lung during liver reperfusion. PROCEDURES: Rat isolated livers were stabilized (30 min) and then perfused with modified Krebs-Henseleit solution (control, n=20) or made globally ischemic (IR, n=20) for 2 hr. Rat lungs were isolated separately, ventilated, and stabilized (30 min) with Krebs plus 5% bovine albumin. Pairs of liver and lung were then reperfused together for 15 min, followed by only lung recirculation with the liver effluent for another 45 min. Three more controls (n=20 each) and three ischemic groups (n=20 each) included lungs which were treated with 100, 150 or 225 mg x kg(-1) NAC (0.5, 0.74, or 1.1 mmol, respectively) during the 15-min liver and lung reperfusion period. RESULTS: Pulmonary artery and ventilatory pressures and vascular resistance increased by 60-80% of baseline, compliance decreased, and bronchoalveolar lavage volume and content were abnormally high in the IR-nontreated and the IR-100 lungs. Most parameters in IR-150 and IR-225 lungs remained almost similar to controls. Postinsult GSH content in IR-100, -150, and -225 lungs was at 20%, 110%, and 90% above the IR-nontreated lungs, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Lung treatment with NAC during its reperfusion with IR liver effluent prevented ALI. Lung GSH replenishment accounted for lung protection, but its content did not correlate directly with grade of protection; NAC itself seemingly afforded lung protection as well.

Lung preconditioning with N-acetyl-L-cysteine prevents reperfusion injury after liver no flow-reflow: a dose-response study.

BACKGROUND: Circulating xanthine oxidase activity and the generated oxidants have been linked to lung reperfusion injury from no flow-reflow conditions in other organs after organ transplantation or surgery. N-acetyl-1-cysteine (NAC), an oxidant scavenger, promotes glutathione in its reduced form (GSH) that is depleted during ischemia. We have recently demonstrated its efficacy in protecting lungs from reperfusion injury if administered during reperfusion of postischemic liver. We now investigated whether preconditioning of lungs with NAC could attenuate lung respiratory or vascular derangement after no flow-reflow (ischemia-reperfusion, IR) and if this depends on lung GSH levels. METHODS: Rat isolated livers were stabilized and perfused with modified Krebs-Henseleit solution (KH) (control, n=12) or made ischemic (no flow, IR-0, n=12) for 2 hr. Meanwhile, lungs were isolated, ventilated, and stabilized (KH+bovine albumin 5%). Serial perfusion (15 min) of liver+lung pairs took place followed by lung only recirculation (45 min) with the accumulated solution. Another three controls and three ischemic groups included lungs treated during stabilization with NAC at 100 mg x kg(-1), 150 or 225 mg x kg(-1) (in 2.5, 3.7 or 5.5 mmol solutions, respectively). Results. Ischemic liver damage, expressed by circulating hepatocellular constituents, was associated with pulmonary artery and ventilatory pressure increases by 70-100% of baseline, abnormal wet-to-dry weight ratio, and abnormal bronchoalveolar lavage volume and content in the IR-0 (nontreated) and the IR-100 and IR-225 pretreated lungs. NAC-150 pretreatment afforded preservation for most parameters. GSH content in the IR-150 lung tissue was only 11% higher than that of IR-225, but 2-fold that in IR-0 and IR-100 GSH lungs. CONCLUSION: Lung preconditioning with NAC prevents reperfusion injury but not in a dose-related manner. Although enhanced GSH tissue content explains lung protection, GSH-independent NAC activity is another possibility.

Gunshot wounds in brains of children: prognostic variables in mortality, course, and outcome.

A retrospective study of 51 children presenting with craniocerebral gunshot lesions was carried out to identify predictors of outcome. The patients ranged in age from 2 months to 17 years, with a mean of 14.5 years. The outcome was good in 20 patients, and seven and four were moderately and severely disabled, respectively. Twenty patients died. Statistical analysis showed prognostic significance of the admission Glasgow Coma Score (GCS), computerized tomographic findings of intraventricular hemorrhage and midline shift, and metabolic abnormalities, including hypokalemia and hyperglycemia. These prognostic factors may have implications regarding counseling of families, utilization of resources, and organ transplantation.

Antagonization of TNF attenuates systemic hemodynamic manifestations of envenomation in a rat model of Vipera aspis snakebite.

OBJECTIVES: Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) has been reported as a mediator of local tissue injury following snake envenomation in an intact rat model. We investigated whether systemic release of TNF occurs following Vipera aspis envenomation. We further analyzed the possible connection between envenomation-related hemodynamic depression and TNF antagonization (TNF antibodies or soluble TNF receptor). DESIGN: A prospective, randomized, controlled experimental study using a rat model for snake envenomation. SETTINGS: A medical university hospital research laboratory. INTERVENTION: Eighty rats (300-400 g) were divided into four groups (n = 20): control and three experimental groups. Intramuscular injection of V. asis 500 microg/kg was administered to the three experimental groups: venom only (group 1), venom and 40 microg anti-TNF antibodies (group 2), venom and 250 microg soluble TNF receptor (p55-R; group 3). Hemodynamic parameters were monitored up to 4 h following venom injection. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: A significant hemodynamic deterioration (reduction in heart rate and blood pressure) occurred 30 min following venom injection in group 1 compared to groups 2 and 3, where hemodynamic parameters remained stable throughout the 4 h observation period. Serum levels of TNF were detected 15 min after venom injection and peaked after 2 h at 485+/-12 pg/ml. CONCLUSIONS: The hemodynamic consequences of intramuscular injection of V. aspis venom can be blunted in a rat by systemic antagonization of TNF activity prior to venom injection. The poisonous hemodynamic effects of the V. aspis venom might be caused by systemic release of TNF.

Malignant hyperthermia susceptibility: anaesthetic implications and risk stratification.

Malignant hyperthermia (MH) is a rare autosomal dominant trait that predisposes individuals to great danger when exposed to certain anaesthetic triggering agents, such as potent volatile anaesthetics and succinylcholine. Sudden hypermetabolic reaction occurs in skeletal muscle, leading to hyperthermia and massive rhabdomyolysis. Precautions must be taken before the anaesthesia of MH-susceptible patients. No triggering agents should be administered, central body temperature and ETCO2 should be carefully monitored, and dantrolene must be immediately available. In addition, the anaesthesia machine should be carefully washed to remove traces of halogenated agents, and the use of fresh disposable anaesthetic circuits is recommended. Early diagnosis of the syndrome by alert, informed anaesthesiologists, and the immediate administration of dantrolene and other supportive measures, has reduced mortality. Patients with MH susceptibility should be instructed to alert the anaesthesiologist about their condition whenever anaesthesia is needed. Although people diagnosed with MH susceptibility should not change their lifestyle in general, military service is limited.

Beta-chemokine secretion patterns in relation to clinical course and outcome in children after cardiopulmonary bypass: continuing the search to abrogate systemic inflammatory response.

BACKGROUND: Surgery involving cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is frequently accompanied by a systemic inflammatory response partly triggered by neutrophils and monocyte-macrophages. Certain cytokines that are powerful leukocyte-chemotactic factors have recently been characterized and shown to be important in evoking inflammatory responses: monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) has monocyte-macrophage chemotactic activity, and regulated-upon-activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES) has a potent chemoattractant activity for mononuclear phagocytes. This prospective cohort study investigated possible roles of these chemokines in the inflammatory response to CPB and relationships between the changes in chemokine levels and the clinical course and outcome. METHODS: Systemic blood of 16 children undergoing CPB was collected after induction of anesthesia (base line); at 15 minutes after bypass onset; at CPB cessation; and at 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 hours afterward to measure MCP-1 and RANTES. RESULTS: The significant changes of plasma beta chemokine levels following CPB were associated with patient characteristics, operative variables, and postoperative course. Cardiopulmonary bypass of more than 2 hours, longer surgical times, inotropic support, and reoperation were associated with higher MCP-1 levels and lower RANTES levels. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest a relation between CPB-induced mediators and clinical effects, implying pathogenic roles for chemokines following CPB. These molecules should be considered as possible targets for therapeutic intervention.

The accumulated experience of the Israeli Advanced Trauma Life Support program.

BACKGROUND: Between January 1990 and May 1995 one faculty in Israel taught Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) courses to 3,700 physicians. Two types of courses were given to three subpopulations. We studied the influence of demographic variables on students' achievements in the course and compared students' achievements as a function of their course type. STUDY DESIGN: This study was conducted as a concurrent longitudinal study. RESULTS: Achievements of 3,700 students were analyzed. The precourse grade, type of course, and their interaction were found to have a significant effect on the postcourse grades. Physicians practicing surgical subspecialties, in general, did better, as did students educated in English-speaking countries. Students who took part in the Combat Trauma Life Support (CTLS) course, which included the entire ATLS course and additional lectures and exercises, also ended with better scores. CONCLUSIONS: Physician's country of origin and clinical subspecialty have a significant effect on the cognitive achievement in the ATLS course provided in Israel. An expanded ATLS course (CTLS), to include additional military trauma topics as well as additional skill station training, can improve the results of the postcourse grades.

Ventilation index and outcome in children with acute respiratory distress syndrome.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the predictive value of the ventilation index (VI) in children with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). We performed a 10-year retrospective chart review of children who were admitted to the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit with a diagnosis of ARDS. Acute respiratory distress syndrome was defined as acute onset of diffuse, bilateral pulmonary infiltrates of noncardiac origin, and severe hypoxemia, defined as the ratio of the arterial partial pressure of oxygen to the fraction of inspired oxygen of <200 and a positive end expiratory pressure of 6 cmH2O or greater. Records of daily arterial blood gas results and ventilator settings were reviewed, and the ventilation index (VI=partial pressure of arterial CO2 x peak airway pressure x respiratory rate/1,000) was calculated each time the measurements were made. These values were correlated with outcome (survival or nonsurvival). The VI was not different at the time of diagnosis of ARDS in the patients who lived, compared with those who subsequently died. However, by 3 to 5 days after study entry, the VI of nonsurvivors was significantly higher than for survivors (P < 0.05). The VI for survivors remained between 30 and 35 throughout the study period, whereas the VI of nonsurvivors continued to increase with time. A VI of >65 predicted death with a specificity and positive predictive value of >90% on days 3 through 9. We conclude that the VI provides a reliable prognostic marker in children with ARDS, and its increase above 65 indicates a need for orderly intervention with alternative modalities of care.

Atropine pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics following endotracheal versus endobronchial administration in dogs.

Emergency endotracheal and endobronchial drug administration provide an effective alternative for intravenous drug delivery during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The purpose of the present study was to determine the immediate pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of atropine following administration by either of these routes. Atropine (0.02 mg/kg) was given to seven anaesthetized mongrel dogs. Each dog was studied twice: once when atropine was injected into the endotracheal tube, and on another day when atropine was given via a flexible catheter wedged into a peripheral bronchus. Plasma atropine concentrations and blood gases were measured during 60 min following drug administration. Both routes of atropine administration differed significantly in three measures: the maximal atropine concentration (Cmax) was significantly higher with the endobronchial administration 40.0 +/- 7.8 ng/ml compared to 23.9 +/- 5 ng/ml endotracheally (P = 0.008); atropine's elimination (t1/2beta) half-life was significantly longer with the endobronchial route (39.3 +/- 5.2 min vs. 28.0 +/- 7.9 min; P = 0.05); Endobronchial administration resulted in an increase of 16% in heart rate, beginning immediately after drug delivery and peaking after 5 min. Other pharmacokinetic parameters were not significantly different. We conclude that endobronchial administration of atropine has a clear advantage over the endotracheal route.

Hemodynamic effects of tracheal administration of vasopressin in dogs.

BACKGROUND: Intravenous administration of vasopressin during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) has been shown to be more effective than optimal doses of epinephrine. Earlier studies had been performed on a porcine model, but pigs produce lysine vasopressin hormone, while humans and dogs do not. This study was designed to compare the effects of tracheal vasopressin with those of NaCl 0.9% (placebo) on haemodynamic variables in a dog model. METHODS: Five dogs were allocated to receive either vasopressin 1.2 U/kg or placebo (10 ml of NaCl 0.9%) via the tracheal route after being anesthetized and ventilated. Haemodynamic variables were determined and arterial blood gases were measured. RESULTS: All animals of the vasopressin group demonstrated a significant increase of the systolic (from 135+/-7 to 165+/-6 mmHg, P<0.05), diastolic (from 85+/-10 to 110+/-10 mmHg, P<0.05) and mean blood pressure (from 98.5+/-3 to 142.2+/-5, P<0.05). Blood pressure rose rapidly and lasted for more than an hour (plateau effect). Heart rate decreased significantly following vasopressin (from 54+/-9 to 40+/-5 beats per min, P<0.05) but not in the placebo group. These changes were not demonstrated with placebo injection. CONCLUSION: Tracheal administration of vasopressin was followed by significantly higher diastolic, systolic and mean blood pressures in the vasopressin group compared with the placebo group. Blood gases remained unchanged in both groups. Vasopressin administered via the trachea may be an acceptable alternative for vasopressor administration during CPR, when intravenous access is delayed or not available, however, further investigation is necessary.

Anaesthesia and critical care considerations in nerve agent warfare trauma casualties.

Nerve agents (NA) (tabun, sarin, suman, VX) have been stocked around the world for some time and still present a major threat to civilian as well as to military populations. Since NA can be delivered through both an aerial spray system and a ballistic system, victims could suffer both NA intoxication and multiple trauma necessitating urgent surgical intervention followed by intensive care. These patients can be expected to be extremely precarious neurologically, respiratorily and haemodynamically. Moreover, their clinical signs can be misleading. Further exacerbating the problem is the fact that interactions of NA with the pharmacological agents used for resuscitation and/or during anaesthesia can aggravate organ instability even more and possibly cause systemic collapse. There are no protocols for perioperative critical care and early assessment or for the administration of anaesthesia for surgical interventions in such combined multiple trauma and intoxicated casualties. We propose a scheme for the administration of critical care and anaesthesia based on the scant anecdotal reports that have emerged after the occurrence of local accidents involving NA intoxication and on the neuropharmacological knowledge of the pesticide organophosphate poisoning database, these compounds being related chemical substances.

Reduction of surgery-induced peritoneal adhesions by methylene blue.

BACKGROUND: The possible involvement of inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO), and reports of protective effects of antioxidants, led us to test the effectiveness of methylene blue and NO synthesis inhibitor in reducing adhesion formation. METHODS: Generation of adhesions in rats, by scraping the anterior uterine horn wall, was followed by intraperitoneal administration of saline methylene blue, or N alpha-t-BOC-omega-nitro-L-arginine. Additional rats received identical treatments, but without the serosal damage. Two weeks later, formation of adhesions was quantitatively graded. RESULTS: Adhesions were found in <5% of the rats with the sham surgery, regardless of treatment. In the experimental group, >95% of the rats treated with saline or NO synthetase inhibitor had severe adhesions, in contrast to 5% of the methylene blue treated rats. Severity of adhesion was lower in the methylene blue group (P <0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Methylene blue was very effective in preventing formation of peritoneal adhesions. Its activity is probably through inhibition of free-radical generation and not of nitric oxide action.

Predictors of adverse outcome from candidal infection in a tertiary care hospital.

OBJECTIVES: To retrospectively delineate predictors of adverse outcome by looking at the demographic features, therapy and outcome of systemic candida infection in a large tertiary care university-affiliated medical center. METHODS: We reviewed the clinical data on 186 inpatients with candidemia over a 6-year period. The major reason for their hospital admission was an underlying malignancy or an infection other than candidemia. RESULTS: Candida albicans, tropicalis, parapsilosis, glabrata and krusei caused 54, 22, 13, 8 and 3% of the candidemia episodes, respectively. The overall mortality was 42% and it was highest in patients suffering from candidemia of the glabrata species (73%). Forty-eight (63%) of the 76 patients who received no anti-fungal treatment died compared to 38 (34%) of 110 patients who were treated (P < 0.05). Predictors of adverse outcome were intensive care unit stay, renal failure, thrombocytopenia and the need for mechanical ventilation or inotropic support. CONCLUSIONS: We identified four predictors of mortality from candidemia infection. Their validity should be further assessed and the specific candida strains and their susceptibility need to be methodically identified. Our data support immediate initiation of therapy at first identification of infection.

Adapting prognostic respiratory variables of ARDS in children to small-scale community needs.

PURPOSE: The clinical literature on the incidence and subsequent mortality of adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) has come primarily from the experiences of large tertiary referral centers, particularly in Western Europe and North America. Consequently, very little has been published on the incidence, management, and outcome of ARDS in smaller community-based intensive care units. We aimed to delineate early clinical respiratory predictors of death in children with ARDS on the modest scale of a community hospital. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective chart review of children with ARDS needing conventional mechanical ventilation admitted to our pediatric intensive care unit from 1984 to 1997. The diagnosis of ARDS was based on acute onset of diffuse, bilateral pulmonary infiltrates of noncardiac origin and severe hypoxemia defined by partial pressure of oxygen <200 mm Hg during positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) of 6 cm H2O or greater for a minimum of 24 hours. Demographic, clinical, and physiological data including PaO2/ FIO2, A-aDo2, and ventilation index were retrieved. RESULTS: Fifty-six children with ARDS aged 8 +/- 5.5 years (range, 50 days to 21 years) were identified. The mortality rate was 50%. Early predictors of death included the peak inspiratory pressure (PIP), ventilation index, and PEEP on the third day after diagnosis: Nonsurvivors had significantly higher PIP (35.3 +/- 10.5 cm H2O vs 44.4 +/- 10.7 cm H2O, P < .001), PEEP (8 +/- 2.8 cm H2O vs 10.7.0 +/- 3.5 cm H2O, P < .01), and ventilation index (49.14 +/- 20.4 mm Hg x cm H2O/minute vs 61.6 +/- 51.1 mm Hg cm H2O/minute) than survivors. In contrast, PAO2/FIO2 and A-a DO2 were capable of predicting outcome by day 5 and thereafter. CONCLUSIONS: A small-scale mortality outcome for ARDS is comparable to large tertiary referral institutions. The PIP, PEEP, and ventilation index are valuable for predicting outcome in ARDS by the third day of conventional therapy. The development of a local risk profile may assist in decision-making of early application of supportive therapies in this population.

Acute respiratory distress syndrome in children with malignancy--can we predict outcome?

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to delineate early respiratory predictors of mortality in children with hemato-oncology malignancy who developed acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a retrospective chart review of children with malignant and ARDS who needed mechanical ventilation and were admitted to a pediatric intensive care unit from January 1987 to January 1997. RESULTS: Seventeen children with ARDS and malignancy aged 10.5 +/- 5.1 years were identified. Six of the 17 children (35.3%) survived. Sepsis syndrome was present in 70.6% of all the children. Peak inspiratory pressure, positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP), and ventilation index values could distinguish outcome by day 3. A significant relationship between respiratory data and outcome related to efficiency of oxygenation, as determined by PaO(2)/FIO(2) and P(A-a)O(2), was present from day 8 after onset of mechanical ventilation. CONCLUSIONS: Peak inspiratory pressure, PEEP, and ventilation index values could distinguish survivors from nonsurvivors by day 3. This may assist in early application of supportive nonconventional therapies in children with malignancy and ARDS.

Gray-white matter discrimination--a possible marker for brain damage in heat stroke?

INTRODUCTION/OBJECTIVE: Heat stroke (HS) is a common medical emergency which carries high morbidity and morality. This study was designed to describe the pattern of central nervous system (CNS) changes as detected by brain CT scan in a case series of six patients suffering from classical and exertional HS. METHODS AND PATIENTS: All the patients were admitted in critical condition during the heat wave in the summer of 1999 in Israel. Each was in deep coma with a measured core temperature of over 40 degrees C upon admission to the emergency department. RESULTS: Aggressive cooling measures decreased the core temperature to <38 degrees C within 30 min following admission. Two patients (33.3%) died. One of the survivors remained in a vegetative state. Brain CT studies carried out within 4 days of admission in all the patients revealed severe loss of gray-white matter discrimination (GWMD) without signs of acute bleed or significant focal lesion, findings that persisted in repeated brain CTs in one patient who remained in a vegetative state. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Loss of GWMD may represent an early and sensitive indication of severe brain damage in patients with severe HS. Further studies in larger groups of patients are warranted in order to determine whether the appearance of GWMD in brain CTs of patients with HS has prognostic value.

Triage for Leiurus quinquestriatus scorpion envenomation in children--is routine ICU hospitalization necessary?

(1) Leiurus quinquestriatus scorpion (LQS) envenomation is a common public health problem with a similar clinical presentation in the Middle East and worldwide: localized reactions occur in up to 97% of the victims. (2) LQS envenomation in children is potentially fatal since the severity of symptoms is weight-dependent. (3) A common policy is to hospitalize all children stung by the LQS-regardless of clinical severity-in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). (4) Seventeen of 18 children treated at two Israeli medical centers during an 8-year period developed mild to moderate clinical manifestations (antivenin was given in the one severe case; all children survived): all 18 had been transferred to an ICU for surveillance. Since patient care in PICUs is far more costly and manpower-intense than in general emergency rooms, we propose that a protocol of 6 h of surveillance in the emergency department is adequate and safe for most children who had been stung by LQS. Only children who develop systemic manifestations should be hospitalized and transferred to the intensive care unit. (5) Further prospective studies should be conducted to define specific subgroups that may benefit from these recommendations.

Advanced trauma life support (ATLS) courses: should training be refocused towards rural physicians?

Recently there has been an increase in the number of courses designed to improve the theoretical knowledge and practical skills of health workers for immediate emergency management under life-threatening conditions. However, the numbers of applicants for these courses far exceed the available places. Priorities should be reviewed to solve the current shortfall. The purpose of this study was to compare the improvement in basic knowledge associated with the advanced trauma life support (ATLS) programme for paediatricians practising in a metropolitan area, with those practising in rural hospitals. This should facilitate proper use of the limited existing resources for training of physicians. A retrospective, comparative analysis of the impact of the ATLS courses for pediatricians was assessed by analysing scores of multiple choice tests before and after the programme. The study group comprised all Israeli paediatricians (n = 72) who completed the course during 1996. Performance was compared between paediatricians working in major, level I (n = 39) and rural, level II trauma centres (n = 33). After the course, all paediatricians improved their scores; those in level I trauma centres improved their mean precourse scores from 72 +/- 13.6 to 85 +/- 5.4, while those working in level II trauma centres improved from 67 +/- 12.4 to 85 +/- 5.0. The impact of the course was reflected in the net and proportional gains. Both were higher for paediatricians working in level II trauma centres, compared with those working in metropolitan trauma centres. Furthermore, the net gain was significantly higher (p < 0.05). Efforts should be made to increase the participation of paediatricians practising in rural level II trauma centres in trauma care courses. Further research should address the applicability of these results for recruiting primary care physicians to the ATLS courses.

Vipera palaestinae snake envenomations: experience in children.

In Israel, Vipera palaestinae (V. palaestinae) is the most common venomous snake, accounting for 100-300 reported cases of envenomation every year. However, V. palaestinae snakebites in children have not been extensively investigated. The demographic features, treatment and outcome of V. palaestinae envenomation in 37 children treated in two medical centers over a 9 year period were retrospectively reviewed. The victims age ranged from 2-18 years with a mean age of 8.9 years. Twenty-nine children were males and eight were females. Twenty-one patients resided in rural areas, and 16 children were living in urban areas. Twenty-three (63%) of the patients were bitten on the lower limb; Twelve (33%) on the upper limb, and two on the head or neck (4%). Using a grading scale of one to three from minimal to severe envenomation, 15 (40.5%), 15 (40.5%) and 7 (19%) patients had mild, moderate and severe envenomation, respectively. Major complications of envenomation that were manifested after arrival consisted of compartment syndrome (two patients) and respiratory dysfunction (two patients). Specific monovalent antiserum for the treatment of V. palaestinae bite was given to 16 children (43%) of whom, four patients were in the severe group, seven and five in the moderate and mild groups respectively. No patient suffered a significant infection, tissue loss, permanent disability or death. We conclude that early ICU admission along with close monitoring and antivenom therapy is important in reducing morbidity and mortality in children systemically envenomed by V. palaestinae.