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Biological sex estimation in forensic anthropology is a crucial topic, and the patella has shown promise in this regard due to its sexual dimorphism. This study uses 12 machine learning models for sex estimation based on three patellar measurements (maximum height, breadth, and thickness). Data was collected from 180 skeletons of a contemporary Italian population (83 males and 97 females) as well as from an independent sample of 21 forensic cases (13 males and 8 females). Statistical analyses indicated that each of the variables exhibited significant sexual dimorphism. To predict biological sex, the classifiers were built using 70% of a reference sample, then tested on the remaining 30% of the original sample and then tested again on the independent sample. The different classifiers generated accuracies varied between 0.85 and 0.91 on the reference sample and between 0.71 and 0.95 for the validation sample. SVM classifier stood out with the highest accuracy and seemed the best model for our study.This study contributes to the growing application of machine learning in forensic anthropology by being the first to apply such techniques to patellar measurements in an Italian population. It aims to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of biological sex estimation from the patella, building on promising results observed with other skeletal elements.
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In decomposed or skeletonized bodies, conventional matrices used in forensic toxicology may no longer be available for analysis. The aim of this paper was to test the survival and detection of toxicological substances in dry bone samples with over 23 years of post-mortem interval. In this perspective, bone samples from the cranium, ribs, and vertebrae of seven skeletons from the CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection, buried for over 23 years, fully decomposed and altered by taphonomic factors were selected based on their ante-mortem data, which included verified or suspected drug addictions or overdose. Qualitative and quantitative analyses were performed with Dionex™ ASE™ 350 Accelerated Solvent Extractor and Q-Exactive Orbitrap-mass spectrometry with a HPLC system. Positive results were obtained in six of the seven cases, and different psychoactive drugs (and in some cases their active metabolites) were detected, including analgesic (two opioids: methadone and buprenorphine) and anxiolytic drugs (benzodiazepines, in particular delorazepam, diazepam, nordiazepam, and lorazepam), a cannabinoid metabolite (THCCOOH) as well as metabolites of stimulants (benzoylecgonine and MDA). Consequently, this research shows that toxicological substances may be found in bone tissue after over 23 years of post-mortem interval.
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Restos Mortales/química , Huesos/química , Psicotrópicos/análisis , Detección de Abuso de Sustancias/métodos , Femenino , Humanos , Italia , Masculino , Proyectos Piloto , Factores de TiempoRESUMEN
The estimation of the post-traumatic survival time (PTST) in case of bone injuries remains a tricky issue in the forensic field, especially when dealing with dry bones. Newer high-resolution imaging, and in particular microcomputed tomography (micro-CT), has the potential to significantly improve our abilities to interpret antemortem and perimortem lesions and accurately date fractures in a less destructive analysis. In this paper, nine costal fractures of known post-traumatic ages were analyzed through gross examination, conventional radiography, and microcomputed tomography, in order to test the potential of microcomputed tomography for dating fractures. As a result, microcomputed tomography provided images of high quality and definition and allowed the observation of the internal microarchitecture of the fractures and calluses. While microcomputed tomography cannot substitute histological examination for the estimation of the post-traumatic survival time, it constitutes a potent and helpful complementary tool for the analysis of bone trauma.
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Patologia Forense/métodos , Radiografía , Fracturas de las Costillas/diagnóstico por imagen , Fracturas de las Costillas/patología , Microtomografía por Rayos X , Adulto , Autopsia , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Factores de Tiempo , Cicatrización de Heridas/fisiologíaRESUMEN
There are several metric and morphological methods available for sex estimation of skeletal remains, but their reliability and applicability depend on the sexual dimorphism of the remains as well as on the availability of preserved bones. Some studies showed that age-related changes on bones can cause misclassification of sex. The purpose of this study was to establish the reliability of pelvic morphological traits and metric methods of sex estimation on relatively old individuals from a modern Italian skeletal collection. The data for this study were obtained from 164 individuals of the Milano CAL skeletal collection and average age of the samples was 75 years. In the pelvic morphological method, the recalibrated regression formula of Klales and colleagues (2012), pre-auricular sulcus, and greater sciatic notch morphology were used for sex estimation. With regard to the metric method, 15 standard measurements from upper and lower limbs were analyzed for sexual dimorphism. The results showed that in pelvic morphological approach, the application of regression formula of the revised Klales and colleague formula (2017) resulted in 100% accuracy. Classification rates of metric methods vary from 75.19 to 90.73% with the maximum epiphyseal breadth of proximal tibia representing the most discriminant parameter. This study confirms that the effect of age on sex estimation methods is not substantial, and both metric and morphological methods of sex estimation can be reliably applied to individuals of Italian descent in middle and late adulthood.
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Pesos y Medidas Corporales , Antropología Forense/métodos , Huesos Pélvicos/anatomía & histología , Caracteres Sexuales , Determinación del Sexo por el Esqueleto/métodos , Factores de Edad , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Femenino , Fémur/anatomía & histología , Humanos , Húmero/anatomía & histología , Italia , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Variaciones Dependientes del Observador , Radio (Anatomía)/anatomía & histología , Tibia/anatomía & histologíaRESUMEN
In the forensic anthropology practice, bone diseases are rarely considered for personal identification. In this paper, we present a forensic skeletonized case with tuberculous bone lesions, for which bone pathology may provide an indicator for positive personal identification. Antemortem hospital records were available. Postmortem CT scans of the pathologically affected bones were performed, and 3D reconstructions with Global Illumination Reconstruction software (GIR) were realized, in order to confront antemortem and postmortem data. As a result, the juxtaposition and superimposition of antemortem and postmortem images evidenced several points of correspondence in the position, anatomical contour, character, and morphological characteristics of the bone lesions, thus demonstrating through a concrete case study the potential of morphological features of bone lesions for the personal identification of unknown deceased.
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Restos Mortales , Antropología Forense/métodos , Sacro/diagnóstico por imagen , Cráneo/diagnóstico por imagen , Columna Vertebral/diagnóstico por imagen , Tuberculosis Osteoarticular/diagnóstico por imagen , Adulto , Autopsia , Humanos , Masculino , Registros Médicos , Sacro/patología , Cráneo/patología , Columna Vertebral/patología , Tuberculosis Osteoarticular/patologíaRESUMEN
Diabetes mellitus is a condition with severe and life-threatening complications and epidemic proportions worldwide. The study of diabetes on bones can provide crucial information to the forensic practice, the archeological field and medical research. In this paper, the authors report and discuss the lesions observed on the skeletons of 38 individuals (plus 11 negative control samples) of the CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection with known diabetes. As a result, different types of lesions were highlighted in the feet: periosteal new bone formation, lysis of tuft, lytic lesions, evidence of trauma, osteomyelitis, and osteochondritis dissecans. In 50% of the skeletons of the study sample, lesions were located on bones of the first ray of the foot. Vascular calcifications were also collected and considered. None of these lesions is pathognomonic of diabetes and each implies a broad differential diagnosis that can be confronted with the upper and axial lesions. However, they are coherent with the disease development and complications. This study is the first to document skeletons with known diabetes from an identified collection and discuss their diagnostic potential.
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Huesos/patología , Diabetes Mellitus/patología , Antropología Forense , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Calcificación Vascular/patologíaRESUMEN
The diagnosis of bone lesions is a fundamental part of the study of skeletal remains, both in the archeological and forensic context. On the one side, the literature proved the relevance of radiography for the detection of bone lesions; on the other side, the careful macroscopic observation of the morphology of bone lesions is often underestimated. For this study, we examined and performed plain radiography on 14 skeletons of the CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, multiple myeloma, metastatic cancer, and osteomalacia to compare the macroscopic morphology and radiographic visualization of bone lesions. At least 200 osteolytic lesions and 65 areas of proliferative bone reaction (either spongiosclerotic or periosteal) were studied. We realized "comparative sets" of macroscopic pictures and radiographic imaging of the same skeletal elements to allow comparisons of detection and recognition of bone lesions. As a result, while trabecular lesions may be lost through naked eye observation, many lesions can also be unperceived on radiographs due to contrast, including periosteal reactions, osteolytic lesions, and spongiosclerosis. The aim of this research was to investigate the strengths and pitfalls of digital radiography and macroscopic analysis and to demonstrate the synergy of a complementary approach between the two methods for lesion analysis in dry bone.
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Huesos/diagnóstico por imagen , Huesos/patología , Radiografía , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Artritis Reumatoide/patología , Restos Mortales/diagnóstico por imagen , Restos Mortales/patología , Diabetes Mellitus/patología , Femenino , Antropología Forense , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Mieloma Múltiple/patología , Metástasis de la Neoplasia/patología , Osteomalacia/patologíaRESUMEN
One of the most important tasks in forensic anthropology is the construction of the biological profile, classically defined as a set of four basic biological descriptors: biological sex, age-at-death, ancestry, and stature. Yet, our empirical and technological abilities in reconstructing the life experiences and health from skeletal remains far exceed these four parameters and forensic anthropology could benefit from further descriptors in the search for an identity. In this paper, we propose the inclusion of two other investigations to forensic anthropology practice to implement the already known biological profile: the interpretation of bone disease and lesions, and forensic toxicology on unconventional biological matrices. These analyses can provide information regarding health, habits, and disease burden, and by implementing them in our practice of forensic anthropology, they have the potential to improve the biological profile. We also propose a new term that can include not only the classical biological profile but also further descriptors, namely, the "biocultural profile".
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This study challenges historical paradigms using a large-scale integrated bioarchaeological approach, focusing on the female experience over the last 2,000 years in Milan, Italy. Specifically, 492 skeletons from the osteological collection of Milan were used to elucidate female survivorship and mortality by integrating bioarchaeological and paleopathological data, paleoepidemiological analyses, and historical contextualization. Findings revealed changes in female longevity, with a notable increase from Roman to contemporary eras, albeit plateauing in the Middle Ages/modern period. Significant sex-specific differences in mortality risk and survivorship were observed: females had higher mortality risk and lower survivorship in the Roman (first-fifth century AD) and Modern (16th-18th century AD) eras, but this trend reversed in the contemporary period (19th-20th century AD). Cultural and social factors negatively impacted female mortality in Roman and modern Milan, while others buffered it during the Middle Ages (sixth-15th century AD). This study underscored the importance of bioarchaeological inquiries in reconstructing the past, providing answers that may challenge historical assumptions and shedding light on how the interplay of cultural, social, and biological factors shaped the female experience across millennia.
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Mortalidad , Humanos , Femenino , Italia/epidemiología , Adulto , Historia Medieval , Historia del Siglo XVII , Historia del Siglo XV , Persona de Mediana Edad , Mortalidad/tendencias , Mortalidad/historia , Historia del Siglo XVI , Longevidad , Historia Antigua , Historia del Siglo XX , Historia del Siglo XVIII , Masculino , Historia del Siglo XIX , Anciano , Supervivencia , Arqueología , Historia del Siglo XXIRESUMEN
In forensic pathology, deaths due to mechanical injuries (blunt, sharp, and gunshot) require an autopsy in order to determine the cause and manner of death through a detailed examination of viscera, soft tissues, and the skeletal system. Sometimes, such as in cases of severe putrefaction, only the skeleton is observable. In such cases, the absence of bony defects does not mean that a trauma-related death should not be considered: yet, how often will a lethal mechanical death produce a defect in the skeletal system? The present study involved a retrospective review of autopsy reports to investigate the frequencies of soft tissue and related skeletal injuries in cases of violent deaths. A total of 200 autopsy reports for cases of four mechanisms of injury including sharp force trauma (n = 50), gunshot (n = 50), blunt force trauma (n = 50), and mechanical asphyxia (n = 50) were examined. Manner of death, localization of bone fractures, and correspondence between external injuries and bone fractures were reported. Frequencies of bone fractures and degree of correspondence with soft tissue injuries for each trauma group were evaluated. The result showed that lethal blunt trauma always caused bone fractures; 94.0% of violent deaths by gunshot involved bones; 48.0% of sharp force soft tissue injuries involved the bone tissue; and hyoid bone fractures were observed in 20.0% of cases of mechanical asphyxia.
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Fracturas Óseas , Traumatismos de los Tejidos Blandos , Heridas por Arma de Fuego , Heridas no Penetrantes , Humanos , Autopsia , Estudios Retrospectivos , Antropología Forense , Asfixia , Fracturas Óseas/patología , Heridas no Penetrantes/patología , Patologia ForenseRESUMEN
Structural violence is an indirect form of violence that can lead to physiological consequences. Interestingly, these physiological disruptions may affect the skeletons and can therefore provide relevant information on violence and way of life in the analysis of skeletal remains. The aim of the present study was to test the hypothesis that migrants who died in the Mediterranean Sea would present physiological cranial stress markers such as cribra orbitalia (CO), porotic hyperostosis (PH), and linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) more frequently and more severely than Italians of the 20th century. With this intent, a total of 164 crania were examined: 139 from deceased migrants recovered from a shipwreck in the Mediterranean Sea in 2015, aged between 16 and 35 years old, and 25 of the same age from the CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection. Both presence and severity of CO, PH, and LEH were evaluated. The data obtained were analyzed using Wilcoxon signed-rank and independence Chi-squared tests to compare the results between the two samples and to test whether there was an association between the sample of migrants and the occurrence of lesions. As a result, CO and PH appeared more frequently and more severely in the migrant sample. In addition, migrants were significantly associated with CO, PH, and LEH (p-values < 0.05). Although this does not imply in any way that CO, PH, and LEH are specific to migration, they should be regarded as indicators of structural violence.
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Stature is a biological trait directly determined by the interaction of genetic and environmental components. As such, it is often evaluated as an indicator for the reconstruction of skeletal biological profiles, past health, and social dynamics of human populations. Based on the analysis of 549 skeletons from the CAL (Collezione Antropologica LABANOF), a study of the diachronic trend of male and female adult stature in Milan (Italy) is being proposed here, covering a time span of about 2000 years, ranging from the Roman era to present-days. The skeletons, from necropolises dedicated to the less wealthy classes of Milanese society, were assigned to one of following five historical periods: Roman Era (first-fifth centuries AD), Early Middle Ages (sixth-tenth centuries AD), Late Middle Ages (eleventh-fifteenth centuries AD), Modern Era (sixteenth-eighteenth centuries AD) and Contemporary Era (nineteenth-twentieth centuries AD), and their stature was estimated according to the regression formulae of Trotter (1970). The collected data were then subjected to statistical analyses with ANOVA using R software. Although stature values showed an ample standard deviation in all periods, statistical analyses showed that stature did not significantly vary across historical periods in Milan for both sexes. This is one of the rare studies showing no diachronic changes in the trend of stature in Europe.
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Estatura , Esqueleto , Adulto , Persona de Mediana Edad , Humanos , Masculino , Femenino , Europa (Continente) , Italia , Programas InformáticosRESUMEN
In this paper, we present the results of toxicological analyses of preserved brain tissue and bone samples from the remains of the seventeenth century patients of the Ospedale Maggiore, the main hospital in Milan and one of the most innovative hospitals in Europe from the Renaissance period. Beneath it, the crypt functioned as the burial place for the deceased of the hospital. In this multidisciplinary study of the remains, toxicological analyses in particular were performed with HPLC-MS/MS on different biological samples from nine individuals. Anthropological, paleopathological, histological, radiological examinations and radiocarbon dating were also carried out. As a result, archeotoxicological analyses revealed the presence of codeine, morphine, noscapine and papaverine, derived from Papaver somniferum, a plant present in the hospital pharmacopeia used as a narcotic, analgesic, astringent, coagulant, and antitussive agent. Such analyses have shed light on the pharmacological therapies administered to the patients near the time of death and have implemented our knowledge of medical treatment and drug administration in the 1600's.
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Papaver , Humanos , Espectrometría de Masas en Tándem , Encéfalo , Italia , Hospitales , NarcóticosRESUMEN
The very reasonable suggestion, that diarthrodial joint and juxta-discal (vertebral centra-marginal) bony overgrowths (referred to as osteophytes) have different etiologies, has eluded previous confirmation. The prevailing perspective is that diarthrodial osteophytes represent the product of compressive forces and that those on the margins of vertebral centra result from traction and therefore are enthesial in derivation. If diarthrodial joint osteophytes result from intrinsic pressures, any surface responses would require transcortical nutritional support, easily recognized by en face microscopic examination. This contrasts with enthesially derived growth, the surface of which is characterized by Sharpey's fiber insertions. These are recognized as inverted cones with a central protrusion on examination of related bone surfaces. We hypothesize that diarthrodial and disc-adjacent osteophytes have a different pathophysiology, distinguishable on the basis of microscopic surface appearance. We pursued microscopic examination of the surfaces of osteophytes present on diarthrodial joints (hip, knee, elbow, costovertebral) and vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, and lumbar) from the CAL Milano Cemetery Skeletal Collection for presence of transcortical channels and the inverted cones of Sharpey's fiber insertions. Examination of 22 diarthrodial joint osteophytes reveals the presence solely of transcortical channels, while examination of 35 vertebral centra marginal osteophytes reveals the presence only of inverted cones. Findings are independent of age, gender, joint affected, position in the spinal column and osteophyte "severity." It is now evidenced that all osteophytes are not created equal. Diarthrodial joint osteophytes are endochondrally derived; vertebral centra osteophytes, enthesial in derivation. Different pathophysiology at least partially explain the clinical character of these processes.
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Osteofito , Osteofitosis Vertebral , Huesos , Humanos , Vértebras Lumbares , Osteofitosis Vertebral/etiologíaRESUMEN
Femicide constitutes a leading cause of premature deaths for women, yet it has been the subject of limited research until recently. Enhanced data collection and analysis on killings of women and girls are necessary to understand and address this unrelenting phenomenon. This study examines all cases of female homicide encountered at the Institute of Legal Medicine of Milan (Italy) spanning from 1999 to 2019; data from 2020/2021 were shown separately given the bias that the forced cohabitation and stay at home during the lockdowns of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic may represent regarding violence against women and femicide. In this study, specific factors were considered, including the age and nationality of the victims, the place of recovery of the bodies, the victim's relationship to the perpetrator and the injuries they suffered. As a result, 200 female killings were found among the over 15,000 autopsies and 535 homicides investigated at the Institute of Legal Medicine of Milan from 1999 to 2019, representing an average of 9.5 femicides yearly. The majority of victims were Italian (74%) and half were aged between 18 and 49 years old. The killings were overwhelmingly committed in the domestic setting (78.5%) by male perpetrators (at least 85%), related to the victims as intimate or ex-intimate partners and members of the family (73.5%). The homicides were mainly perpetrated with sharp (32%) or blunt instruments (21.5%), shooting (18.5%) and asphyxiation (16.5%). This study is part of a growing effort to enhance data collection and analysis on femicide. Studying and monitoring the rates of femicide (or "femicide watch") will permit to better understand, reduce, and finally end femicide globally.
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COVID-19 , Víctimas de Crimen , Adolescente , Adulto , Control de Enfermedades Transmisibles , Femenino , Homicidio , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Estudios Retrospectivos , SARS-CoV-2 , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
The lingula is a small bony projection emerging from the medial ridge of the mandibular foramen, subjected to morphological variations. To date, scientific literature has described four different shapes (truncated, triangular, nodular and assimilated) and the relative distributions in different human populations. However, no data are available on Europeans so far. To this purpose, the present study aims to evaluate the distribution of the lingula shapes in the Italian population and to verify its relevance in ancestry estimation. Lingula was analysed in 235 dry mandibles selected among contemporary Italian cemeterial skeletons. Since only well-preserved sides were considered, 453 sides were evaluated according to a classification method, which includes the description of a fifth shape (the bridge shape) and the presence of mixed morphologies. In our sample, the most prevalent shape was the truncated shape (38.6%), followed by the nodular (26.3%), mixed morphologies (15.2%), triangular (10.8%), bridge (5.1%) and assimilated (4.0%) shapes. Within mixed morphologies, the most prevalent were the nodular/truncated (31.9%), nodular/triangular (30.4%), and nodular/assimilated (23.2%). Differently to previous studies, the lingula morphology could not actually offer a concrete and reliable help to ancestry estimation. However, its shape and extension would assume a stronger clinical influence for the execution and success of the alveolar nerve block used in dental and maxillofacial surgery procedures.
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Medicina Legal , Mandíbula , HumanosRESUMEN
Objective: Despite the existing literature, the use of surgery to treat medical diseases in Ancient Egypt remains controversial. Regarding amputations, such procedures were performed in Egypt for therapeutic reasons, although they were never described in medical papyri. Here, we present the radiographic study of a possible lower limb amputation found in a recently discovered tomb in Aswan, Egypt. Methods: The necropolis is located on the west bank of the Nile, around the Mausoleum of the Aga Khan III. Around 45 mummies were found in the tomb, along with more than 400 mixed bones of adults and subadults. Radiographic analyses were carried out directly on-site in the proximity of the tomb using a digital portable device.Among the mixed bones, we found a mature right femur with evidence of mid-diaphyseal bone interruption and exuberant reparative callus at the broken stump with woven periosteal new bone, indicating a recent and active healing process at the time of death. The X-ray study confirmed the presence of a mid-diaphyseal transverse fracture, highlighting the relatively sharp margins which were suggestive of a transverse cut at this point. A slightly radiopaque bone callus was visible as osseous spurs with circumferential and proximal directions; the exuberant bone callus revealed an ante-mortem trauma, suggesting the hypothesis of certain types of amputation. The X-ray showed no clear signs of other bone diseases or advanced taphonomic processes. Among the commingled remains, we also found the mature distal epiphysis of a right femur with radiographic evidence of extensive bone remodeling at the proximal broken stump. However, we cannot ascertain that these two femoral pieces corresponded to the same individual. Conclusions: Further studies will better clarify the causes of the bony lesion, which may be related to possible amputation of fracture from high-force blunt trauma. At present, the most likely cause relies on interpersonal violence, accidental occupation trauma and/or therapeutic treatment. Our report highlights how conventional radiology can still provide important results in the field of paleopathology, thanks to the possibility of using portable radiological devices directly on archaeological sites, thus overcoming technical difficulties in transporting bone mummified remains.
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The paper presents the skeletal remains of an adult male of 30-40 years with bone lesions and deformity on the left hip, recovered during the archaeological excavation below the former Basilica of San Dionigi, dated to Late Antiquity (3rd - 5th century AD) Milan. Biological profile and paleopathological analysis were performed following standard references and the bones underwent radiological examination. Differential diagnosis included congenital anomaly, active rickets, infectious diseases, femoral neck trauma, Legg-Carvé-Perthes disease, Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis (SFCE), osteogenesis imperfecta and osteoporosis. While the lesions were highly consistent with Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease, they were typical of SFCE, complicated by an avascular necrosis and secondary osteoarthrosis. The alteration of the femoral head led to a 7.8% leg-length discrepancy, causing gait alteration with partial compensation though increased muscular activity on the right leg, reduced mobility of the joint and potentially hip pain, difficulty in walking and running and even limping. This paper explores a case of physical disability from the Roman era found near a Christian place of worship and represents a rare case of SFCE in the paleopathological record.
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Enfermedad de Legg-Calve-Perthes , Osteoartritis , Epífisis Desprendida de Cabeza Femoral , Adulto , Masculino , Humanos , Epífisis Desprendida de Cabeza Femoral/complicaciones , Enfermedad de Legg-Calve-Perthes/patología , Cabeza Femoral/diagnóstico por imagen , Cabeza Femoral/patología , Fémur/diagnóstico por imagenRESUMEN
Forensic anthropologists rely on a number of parameters when analyzing human skeletal remains to assist in the identification of the deceased, predominantly age-at-death, sex, stature, ancestry or population affinity, and any unique identifying features. During the examination of human remains, it is important to be aware that the skeletal features considered when applying anthropological methods may be influenced and modified by a number of factors, and particular to this article, prescription drugs (including medical and non-medical use) and other commonly used drugs. In view of this, this paper aims to review the medical, clinical and pharmacological literature to enable an assessment of those drug groups that as side effects have the potential to have an adverse effect on the skeleton, and explore whether or not they can influence the estimation of age-at-death, sex and other indicators of the biological profile. Moreover, it may be that the observation of certain alterations or inconsistencies in the skeleton may relate to the use of drugs or medication, and this in turn may help narrow down the list of missing persons to which a set of human remains could belong. The information gathered from the clinical and medical literature has been extracted with a forensic anthropological perspective and provides an awareness on how several drugs, such as opioids, cocaine, corticosteroids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, alcohol, tobacco and others have notable effects on bone. Through different mechanisms, drugs can alter bone mineral density, causing osteopenia, osteoporosis, increase the risk of fractures, osteonecrosis, and oral changes. Not much has been written on the influence of drugs on the skeleton from the forensic anthropological practitioner perspective; and this review, in spite of its limitations and the requirement of further research, aims to investigate the current knowledge of the possible effects of both prescription and recreational drugs on bones, contributing to providing a better awareness in forensic anthropological practice and assisting in the identification process of the deceased.
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Fracture dating is an issue at the forefront of forensic sciences. While dating fracture is crucial to understanding and verifying the chronology of events in cases of abuse and violent death, its application is the subject of considerable discussion in the scientific community, filled with limitations and difficulties. Current methods for fracture dating are mainly based on a qualitative assessment through macroscopy, microscopy, and imaging and subject to variations depending on the experience of the observer. In this paper, we investigated the potential of quantifiable micro-CT analysis for fracture dating. Five histomorphometric parameters commonly used for the study of the 3D bone trabecular microarchitecture with micro-CT were calculated based on nine fractures of known post-traumatic ages, including the degree of anisotropy, connectivity density, bone volume fraction, trabecular thickness, and trabecular separation. As a result, trends in the evolution of the microarchitecture of the bone relative to age of the callus could be identified, in particular concerning anisotropy, trabecular separation and connectivity density, consistent with the healing bone process. The findings obtained in this pilot study encourage further research in quantifiable parameters of the bone microarchitecture as they could represent useful features for the construction of objective models for fracture dating.