Effects of 24-week Polarized Training vs. Threshold Training in Obese Male Adults.

The combination of high volume of moderate-intensity continuous training with a low volume of high-intensity interval training improved body composition and physical capacities in individuals with obesity. However, polarized training (POL) has never been used in adult men with obesity. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate changes in body composition and physical capacities induced by a 24-week POL or threshold (THR) program in obese male adults. Twenty male patients (mean age 39.8±6.3 yrs; mean body mass index [BMI] 31.6±2.7 kg∙m-2) participated in this study (n: 10 POL, n: 10 THR). After 24-week, body mass (BM) and fat mass (FM) decreased by -3.20±3.10 kg (P<0.05) and -3.80±2.80 kg (P<0.05), respectively, similarly in both groups. Maximal oxygen uptake ( ̇VO2max) and ̇VO2 at respiratory compensation point (RCP) increased in the POL group (+8.5±12.2 and+9.0±17.0%, P<0.05) and in the THR group (+4.24±8.64 and+4.0±6.70%, P<0.05), as well ̇VO2 at gas exchange threshold (GET) increased similarly in both groups (+12.8±12.0%, P<0.05). POL and THR were equally effective in improving body composition and physical capacities in obese subjects. Future studies are needed to determine whether adherence to the training program can be improved by adding a running competition compared with a group without competition at the end of the training program.

A Pilot Study Using Entropy for Optimizing Self-Pacing during a Marathon.

A new group of marathon participants with minimal prior experience encounters the phenomenon known as "hitting the wall," characterized by a notable decline in velocity accompanied by the heightened perception of fatigue (rate of perceived exertion, RPE). Previous research has suggested that successfully completing a marathon requires self-pacing according to RPE rather than attempting to maintain a constant speed or heart rate. However, it remains unclear how runners can self-pace their races based on the signals received from their physiological and mechanical running parameters. This study aims to investigate the relationship between the amount of information conveyed in a message or signal, RPE, and performance. It is hypothesized that a reduction in physiological or mechanical information (quantified by Shannon Entropy) affects performance. The entropy of heart rate, speed, and stride length was calculated for each kilometer of the race. The results showed that stride length had the highest entropy among the variables, and a reduction in its entropy to less than 50% of its maximum value (H = 3.3) was strongly associated with the distance (between 22 and 40) at which participants reported "hard exertion" (as indicated by an RPE of 15) and their performance (p < 0.001). These findings suggest that integrating stride length's Entropy feedback into new cardioGPS watches could improve marathon runners' performance.

Myostatin is a key mediator between energy metabolism and endurance capacity of skeletal muscle.

Myostatin (Mstn) participates in the regulation of skeletal muscle size and has emerged as a regulator of muscle metabolism. Here, we hypothesized that lack of myostatin profoundly depresses oxidative phosphorylation-dependent muscle function. Toward this end, we explored Mstn(-/-) mice as a model for the constitutive absence of myostatin and AAV-mediated overexpression of myostatin propeptide as a model of myostatin blockade in adult wild-type mice. We show that muscles from Mstn(-/-) mice, although larger and stronger, fatigue extremely rapidly. Myostatin deficiency shifts muscle from aerobic toward anaerobic energy metabolism, as evidenced by decreased mitochondrial respiration, reduced expression of PPAR transcriptional regulators, increased enolase activity, and exercise-induced lactic acidosis. As a consequence, constitutively reduced myostatin signaling diminishes exercise capacity, while the hypermuscular state of Mstn(-/-) mice increases oxygen consumption and the energy cost of running. We wondered whether these results are the mere consequence of the congenital fiber-type switch toward a glycolytic phenotype of constitutive Mstn(-/-) mice. Hence, we overexpressed myostatin propeptide in adult mice, which did not affect fiber-type distribution, while nonetheless causing increased muscle fatigability, diminished exercise capacity, and decreased Pparb/d and Pgc1a expression. In conclusion, our results suggest that myostatin endows skeletal muscle with high oxidative capacity and low fatigability, thus regulating the delicate balance between muscle mass, muscle force, energy metabolism, and endurance capacity.

The sustainability of VO2max: effect of decreasing the workload.

The study examined the maintenance of VO(2max) using VO(2max) as the controlling variable instead of power. Therefore, ten subjects performed three exhaustive cycling exercise bouts: (1) an incremental test to determine VO(2max) and the minimal power at VO(2max) (PVO(max)), (2) a constant-power test at PVO(max) and (3) a variable-power test (VPT) during which power was varied to control VO(2) at VO(2max). Stroke volume (SV) was measured by impedance in each test and the stroke volume reserve was calculated as the difference between the maximal and the average 5-s SV. Average power during VPT was significantly lower than PVO(max) (238 ± 79 vs. 305 ± 86 W; p < 0.0001). All subjects, regardless of their VO(2max) values and/or their ability to achieve a VO(2max) plateau during incremental test, were able to sustain VO(2max) for a significantly longer time during VPT compared to constant-power test (CPT) (958 ± 368 s vs. 136 ± 81 s; p < 0.0001). Time to exhaustion at VO(2max) during VPT was correlated with the power drop in the first quarter of the time to exhaustion at VO(2max) (r = 0.71; p < 0.02) and with the stroke volume reserve (r = 0.70, p = 0.02) but was not correlated with VO(2max). This protocol, using VO(2max) rather than power as the controlling variable, demonstrates that the maintenance of exercise at VO(2max) can exceed 15 min independent of the VO(2max) value, suggesting that the ability to sustain exercise at VO(2max) has different limiting factors than those related to the VO(2max) value.

Modelling decremental ramps using 2- and 3-parameter "critical power" models.

The "Critical Power" (CP) model of human bioenergetics provides a valuable way to identify both limits of tolerance to exercise and mechanisms that underpin that tolerance. It applies principally to cycling-based exercise, but with suitable adjustments for analogous units it can be applied to other exercise modalities; in particular to incremental ramp exercise. It has not yet been applied to decremental ramps which put heavy early demand on the anaerobic energy supply system. This paper details cycling-based bioenergetics of decremental ramps using 2- and 3-parameter CP models. It derives equations that, for an individual of known CP model parameters, define those combinations of starting intensity and decremental gradient which will or will not lead to exhaustion before ramping to zero; and equations that predict time to exhaustion on those decremental ramps that will. These are further detailed with suitably chosen numerical and graphical illustrations. These equations can be used for parameter estimation from collected data, or to make predictions when parameters are known.

Improvement of adiponectin in relation to physical performance and body composition in young obese males subjected to twenty-four weeks of training programs.

Obesity and related metabolic diseases represent a worldwide health problem. The main factor predisposing to obesity is an unhealthy lifestyle including the lack of physical activity. A pivotal role in the etio-pathogenesis of obesity is carried out by adipose tissue, an endocrine organ secreting several adipokines involved in numerous metabolic and inflammatory processes. Among these, of particular importance is adiponectin, an adipokine involved in the regulation of insulin sensibility and in anti-inflammatory processes. The aim of the study was to determine the effects of 24 weeks of two different training programs polarized (POL) and threshold training (THR) on body composition, physical capacities and adiponectin expression. Thirteen male obese subjects (BMI: 32.0 ± 3.0 kg m-2) followed 24 weeks of two different training programs, POL and THR, consisting of walking or running (or a combination of the two methods) in their normal living conditions. Before (T0) and after the end of the program (T1), the assessment of body composition was assessed by bioelectrical impedance and the concentration of salivary and serum adiponectin was analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and western blotting. Although the results obtained did not show significant differences between the two training programs, body mass and body mass index decreased by a mean of -4.46 ± 2.90 kg and 1.43 ± 0.92 kg m-2 (P < 0.05). Fat mass decreased by -4.47 ± 2.78 kg (P < 0.05). V'O2max increased by a mean of 0.20 ± 0.26 L min-1 (P < 0.05) Also, we observed an increase in saliva and in serum of adiponectin concentrations at T1 compared to T0 by 4.72 ± 3.52 µg mL-1 and 5.22 ± 4.74 ng mL-1 (P < 0.05) respectively. Finally, we found significant correlations between Δ serum adiponectin and Δ Hip (R = -0.686, P = 0.001) and between Δ salivary adiponectin and ΔWaist (R = -0.678, P = 0.011). Our results suggest that a 24 weeks training program, independently from intensity and volume, induces an amelioration of body composition and fitness performance. These improvements are associated with an increase in total and HMW adiponectin expression in both saliva and in serum.

NMR metabolomics for assessment of exercise effects with mouse biofluids.

Exercise modulates the metabolome in urine or blood as demonstrated previously for humans and animal models. Using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) metabolomics, the present study compares the metabolic consequences of an exhaustive exercise at peak velocity (Vp) and at critical velocity (Vc) on mice. Since small-volume samples (blood and urine) were collected, dilution was necessary to acquire NMR spectra. Consequently, specific processing methods were applied before statistical analysis. According to the type of exercise (control group, Vp group and Vc group), 26 male mice were divided into three groups. Mice were sacrificed 2 h after the end of exercise, and urine and blood samples were drawn from each mouse. Proton NMR spectra were acquired with urine and deproteinized blood. The NMR data were aligned with the icoshift method and normalised using the probabilistic quotient method. Finally, data were analysed with the orthogonal projection of latent-structure analysis. The spectra obtained with deproteinized blood can neither discriminate the control mice from exercised mice nor discriminate according to the duration of the exercise. With urine samples, a significant statistical model can be estimated when comparing the control mice to both groups, Vc and Vp. The best model is obtained according to the exercise duration with all mice. Taking into account the spectral regions having the highest correlations, the discriminant metabolites are allantoin, inosine and branched-chain amino acids. In conclusion, metabolomic profiles assessed with NMR are highly dependent on the exercise. These results show that urine samples are more informative than blood samples and that the duration of the exercise is a more important parameter to influence the metabolomic status than the exercise velocity.

A new incremental test for VO2max accurate measurement by increasing VO2max plateau duration, allowing the investigation of its limiting factors.

The purpose of this study was to (1) validate a new exercise protocol for accurate measurement of VO(2max) by obtention of a VO(2max) plateau for all subjects fit and unfit (2) test the hypothesis that VO(2max) plateau duration is not correlated with VO(2max) and (3) verify that limiting factors of VO(2max) plateau duration are different from those of VO(2max) amplitude. Therefore, 14 subjects performed two incremental cycling tests: (1) a classical incremental test (CIT) to determine VO(2max), the power at VO(2max) (PVO(2max)) and at the lactate threshold (PLT) (2) a new incremental test (NIT) in which the power was decreased just after the subject reached VO(2max). During both protocols, heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output, the arterio-venous difference and the oxygen blood saturation were recorded. The results showed that, with the NIT, subject could maintain a long VO(2max) plateau (6 ± 3 min), even those who could not reach VO(2max) plateau at the end of CIT (n = 5). The VO(2max) plateau duration was not correlated with VO(2max) amplitude which was correlated with the power at SV(max) (r = 0.888, p < 0.001). The VO(2max) plateau duration was correlated with the power decrease (W/s) during the VO(2max) plateau (r = -0.72, p = 0.003) but not with cardiac-related factors nor with PVO(2max). In conclusion, these experiments showed that it was possible to get a long VO(2max) plateau at the end of NIT whatever the individual VO(2max) amplitude was. The limiting factor of VO(2max) duration was the power output.

Cardiac output and performance during a marathon race in middle-aged recreational runners.

PURPOSE: Despite the increasing popularity of marathon running, there are no data on the responses of stroke volume (SV) and cardiac output (CO) to exercise in this context. We sought to establish whether marathon performance is associated with the ability to sustain high fractional use of maximal SV and CO (i.e, cardiac endurance) and/or CO, per meter (i.e., cardiac cost). METHODS: We measured the SV, heart rate (HR), CO, and running speed of 14 recreational runners in an incremental, maximal laboratory test and then during a real marathon race (mean performance: 3 hr 30 min ± 45 min). RESULTS: Our data revealed that HR, SV and CO were all in a high but submaximal steady state during the marathon (87.0 ± 1.6%, 77.2 ± 2.6%, and 68.7 ± 2.8% of maximal values, respectively). Marathon performance was inversely correlated with an upward drift in the CO/speed ratio (mL of CO × m(-1)) (r = -0.65, P < 0.01) and positively correlated with the runner's ability to complete the race at a high percentage of the speed at maximal SV (r = 0.83, P < 0.0002). CONCLUSION: Our results showed that marathon performance is inversely correlated with cardiac cost and positively correlated with cardiac endurance. The CO response could be a benchmark for race performance in recreational marathon runners.

Heart rate regulation processed through wavelet analysis and change detection: some case studies.

Heart rate variability (HRV) is an indicator of the regulation of the heart, see Task Force (Circulation 93(5):1043-1065, 1996). This study compares the regulation of the heart in two cases of healthy subjects within real life situations: Marathon runners and shift workers. After an update on the state of the art on HRV processing, we specify our probabilistic model: We choose modeling heartbeat series by locally stationary Gaussian process (Dahlhaus in Ann Stat 25, 1997). HRV is then processed by the combination of two statistical methods: (1) Continuous wavelet transform for calculating the spectral density energy in the high frequency (HF) and low frequency (LF) bands and (2) Change point analysis to detect changes of heart regulation. Next, we plot the variations of the HF and LF energy in extreme conditions for both populations. This puts in light, that physical activities (rest, moderate sport, marathon race) can be ordered in a logical continuum. This allows to define a new index based on HF and LF energy that is log HF + log LF which appears relevant to measure HR regulation. The results obtained are pertinent but have to be completed by further studies.

New field test to track changes of flatwater paddling performance: a preliminary study.

A new test sensitive to changes in training was developed for well-trained flatwater paddlers. The test is easily carried out on open water and is sensitive to changes in the volume of high-intensity paddling sessions that occur during preparation for the international competitive season.

Marathon Performance Depends on Pacing Oscillations between Non Symmetric Extreme Values.

A marathon was recently run in less than 2 h by a man who ran the three fastest marathons ever recorded in a span of three years-Eliud Kipchoge-in the Tokyo Olympic games. Here, we demonstrate that the best marathons were run according to a pace distribution that is statistically not constant and with negative asymmetry. The concept of mirror race enables us to show that the sign of asymmetry is not due to sampling fluctuations. We show that marathon performance depends on pacing oscillations between extreme values, and that even the best marathons ever run differ and can be improved upon. The utilization of extreme values and oscillations allows for recovery and optimization of the complementary aerobic and anaerobic metabolisms. Our findings suggest new ways to approach the pacing for optimizing endurance performance.

Which of the Physiological vs. Critical Speed Is a Determinant of Modern Pentathlon 200 m Front Crawl Swimming Performance: The Influence of Protocol and Ergometer vs. Swimming Pool Conditions.

BACKGROUND: Modern pentathlon includes horse riding, fencing, swimming, shooting and cross-country running. Events can last many hours during which the athletes face almost maximal energy and physiological demands, and fatigue. Early recognition and prevention of injuries and overuse syndromes can be achieved by refining the individual training loads. The purpose of the study was to determine which parameter could be the most accurate predictor of swimming working capacity determinants in pentathletes. METHODS: Fourteen male pentathletes performed a continuous maximal incremental test in the swimming flume ergometer to measure peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), and five swimming tests in a 50 m swimming pool to detect critical velocity (CV); velocity at 2 and 4 mM·L-1 of blood lactate (v2, v4) and energy cost (EC). RESULTS: The 200 m swimming time was 2:18-2:32 m:s (340 FINA points). CV was 1.21 ± 0.04 m·s-1, v2 was 1.14 ± 0.09 and v4 1.23 ± 0.08 m·s-1. VO2peak was 3540.1 ± 306.2 mL·min-1 or 48.8 ± 4.6 mL·kg-1·min-1. EC at 1.24 m·s-1 was 45.7 ± 2.4 mL·kg-1·min-1. Our main finding was the large correlation of CV with 200 m swimming performance; Conclusions: Among all the protocols analysed, CV is the most predictive and discriminative of individual swimming performance in this group of pentathletes. It appears as the most suitable test to constantly refine their swimming training loads for both performance enhancement and health promotion.

Oxygen Uptake Measurements and Rate of Perceived Exertion during a Marathon.

Although the marathon race has been democratized, it remains complex due to the famous "hitting the wall" phenomenon after the 25th km. To characterize this "wall" from a physiological and Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) perspective in recreational marathon runners, we report first continuous breath-by-breath gas exchange measurements during an actual marathon race. In order to test the hypothesis that RPE could be a candidate for controlling the marathon pace, this study examined the relationship between RPE and the physiological variables time course throughout a marathon. Only the respiratory frequency and heart rate increased progressively during the race in all the runners, while the oxygen uptake and ventilatory rate followed different kinetics according the individuals. However, the indexation of the physiological parameters and speed by RPE showed the same decreased tendency for all the runners. In conclusion, these results suggest that running a marathon must be self-paced with the RPE.

Heart Rate Does Not Reflect the %VO2max in Recreational Runners during the Marathon.

Exercise physiologists and coaches prescribe heart rate zones (between 65 and 80% of maximal heart rate, HRmax) during a marathon because it supposedly represents specific metabolic zones and the percentage of V˙O2max below the lactate threshold. The present study tested the hypothesis that the heart rate does not reflect the oxygen uptake of recreational runners during a marathon and that this dissociation would be more pronounced in the lower performers' group (>4 h). While wearing a portable gas exchange system, ten male endurance runners performed an incremental test on the road to determine V˙O2max, HRmax, and anaerobic threshold. Two weeks later, the same subjects ran a marathon with the same device for measuring the gas exchanges and HR continuously. The %HRmax remained stable after the 5th km (between 88% and 91%, p = 0.27), which was not significantly different from the %HRmax at the ventilatory threshold (89 ± 4% vs. 93 ± 6%, p = 0.12). However, the %V˙O2max and percentage of the speed associated with V˙O2max decreased during the marathon (81 ± 5 to 74 ± 5 %V˙O2max and 72 ± 9 to 58 ± 14 %vV˙O2max, p < 0.0001). Hence, the ratio between %HRmax and %V˙O2max increased significantly between the 5th and the 42nd km (from 1.01 to 1.19, p = < 0.001). In conclusion, pacing during a marathon according to heart rate zones is not recommended. Rather, learning about the relationship between running sensations during training and racing using RPE is optimal.

The Carbon Footprint of Marathon Runners: Training and Racing.

Marathon running leaves a significant carbon footprint regarding CO2 emissions; for example, 37 percent of New York Marathon participants travel internationally to New York. The aim of this study is to estimate the CO2 footprint of a person training and competing in a marathon; we will also propose methods to minimize the CO2 footprint because of transportation. In addition, we also examine the influence of food practices and hygiene on training and racing a marathon. METHODS: We estimated the annual carbon footprint of one person taking part in a marathon. We considered all training, racing, and travelling (local and international) for one person (we are going to give him the first name of "Henri"), and then compared his CO2 footprint with his colleagues playing tennis and soccer. The excess CO2 footprint whilst running and for shoes, clothing, books, magazines, insurance, travel, hygiene, laundry, and resources for electronics and additional food consumed were calculated. For competitions, we estimated and compared the CO2 emission from transportation to national vs. international marathon (New York). RESULTS: We estimated that our runner emitted 4.3 tons of CO2 equivalent (CO2e), including all greenhouse gases. A transatlantic flight to New York corresponded to 3.5 tons CO2, which is 83% of the annual carbon footprint of an average French citizen which is about 11 tons CO2e/year. This leads to a sudden 40% increase in Henri's annual carbon footprint. CONCLUSIONS: By focusing on the additional carbon footprint from one year of marathon training and racing, and traveling locally versus internationally, this sport still has a potentially significant carbon footprint that runners and race organizers ought to consider. We wanted to answer a growing question of marathon runners who are wondering about the carbon footprint of their sports practice in following with a new environmentalist trend that considers not traveling anymore to participate in marathons and to stay local. However, the representativeness in the selection of calculation objectives is very low. There is no need for statistics since this study is a theoretical simulation of traditional training and competition practices of marathon runners.

Pace Controlled by a Steady-State Physiological Variable Is Associated with Better Performance in a 3000 M Run.

This paper aims to test the hypothesis whereby freely chosen running pace is less effective than pace controlled by a steady-state physiological variable. Methods Eight runners performed four maximum-effort 3000 m time trials on a running track. The first time trial (TT1) was freely paced. In the following 3000 m time trials, the pace was controlled so that the average speed (TT2), average V˙O2 (TT3) or average HR (TT4) recorded in TT1 was maintained throughout the time trial. Results: Physiologically controlled pace was associated with a faster time (mean ± standard deviation: 740 ± 34 s for TT3 and 748 ± 33 s for TT4, vs. 854 ± 53 s for TT1; p < 0.01), a lower oxygen cost of running (200 ± 5 and 220 ± 3 vs. 310 ± 5 mLO2·kg-1·km-1, respectively; p < 0.02), a lower cardiac cost (0.69 ± 0.08 and 0.69 ± 0.04 vs. 0.86 ± 0.09 beat·m-1, respectively; p < 0.01), and a more positively skewed speed distribution (skewness: 1.7 ± 0.9 and 1.3 ± 0.6 vs. 0.2 ± 0.4, p < 0.05). Conclusion: Physiologically controlled pace (at the average V˙O2 or HR recorded in a freely paced run) was associated with a faster time, a more favorable speed distribution and lower levels of physiological strain, relative to freely chosen pace. This finding suggests that non-elite runners do not spontaneously choose the best pace strategy.

Marathon-Induced Cardiac Fatigue: A Review over the Last Decade for the Preservation of the Athletes' Health.

AIM: To provide a state-of-the-art review of the last 10 years focusing on cardiac fatigue following a marathon. METHODS: The PubMed, Bookshelf and Medline databases were queried during a time span of 10 years to identify studies that met the inclusion criteria. Twenty-four studies focusing only on the impact of marathons on the cardiac function and factors involved in cardiac fatigue were included in this review. RESULTS: Sixteen studies focused on the impact of marathons on several biomarkers (e.g., C-reactive protein, cardiac troponin T). Seven studies focused on the left (LV) or right (RV) ventricular function following a marathon and employed cardiac magnetic resonance, echocardiography, myocardial speckle tracking and heart rate variability to analyze global and regional LV or RV mechanics and the impact of the autonomic nervous system on cardiac function. One study focused on serum profiling and its association with cardiac changes after a marathon. CONCLUSIONS: This review reported a negligible impact of marathons on LV and RV systolic and contractile function but a negative impact on LV diastolic function in recreational runners. These impairments are often associated with acute damage to the myocardium. Thus, the advice of the present review to athletes is to adapt their training and have a regular medical monitoring to continue to run marathons while preserving their cardiac health.

Mountaineering experience decreases the net oxygen cost of climbing Mont Blanc (4,808 m).

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that mountaineering experience decreases the net oxygen cost of uphill walking (OCw) on steep mountain trails and in ice and snow conditions. OCw was measured during an ascent of Mont Blanc in eight experienced alpinists and eight non-alpinists who were matched for sex (4 + 4) and low-altitude aerobic power (V(O)(2)(max) 50-55 ml kg(-1) min(-1)). Subjects carried a breath-by-breath gas exchange analyzer and a GPS. V(O)(2)(max) at altitude was estimated from measured low-altitude V(O)(2)(max) using Bassett's equation to calculate fractional use of V(O)(2)(max) during the ascent (FV(O)(2)(max)). OCw was calculated as the difference between V(O)(2) while climbing minus resting V(O)(2). At all elevations, Alpinists exhibited a lower OCw (P < 0.01). In all subjects, OCw increased when encountering ice and snow conditions. FV(O)(2)(max) remained stable around 75% at all elevations independent of experience or sex. In conclusion, the OCw is lower in experienced mountaineers compared to non-experienced subjects, and increases when going from steep rocky mountain terrain to ice and snow conditions, independent of mountaineering experience or sex.

Maximal Time Spent at VO2max from Sprint to the Marathon.

Until recently, it was thought that maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) was elicited only in middle-distance events and not the sprint or marathon distances. We tested the hypothesis that VO2max can be elicited in both the sprint and marathon distances and that the fraction of time spent at VO2max is not significantly different between distances. METHODS: Seventy-eight well-trained males (mean [SD] age: 32 [13]; weight: 73 [9] kg; height: 1.80 [0.8] m) performed the University of Montreal Track Test using a portable respiratory gas sampling system to measure a baseline VO2max. Each participant ran one or two different distances (100 m, 200 m, 800 m, 1500 m, 3000 m, 10 km or marathon) in which they are specialists. RESULTS: VO2max was elicited and sustained in all distances tested. The time limit (Tlim) at VO2max on a relative scale of the total time (Tlim at VO2max%Ttot) during the sprint, middle-distance, and 1500 m was not significantly different (p > 0.05). The relevant time spent at VO2max was only a factor for performance in the 3000 m group, where the Tlim at VO2max%Ttot was the highest (51.4 [18.3], r = 0.86, p = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: By focusing on the solicitation of VO2max, we demonstrated that the maintenance of VO2max is possible in the sprint, middle, and marathon distances.