HIV envelope antibodies and TLR7 agonist partially prevent viral rebound in chronically SHIV-infected monkeys.

A key challenge for the development of a cure to HIV-1 infection is the persistent viral reservoir established during early infection. Previous studies using Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) agonists and broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) have shown delay or prevention of viral rebound following antiretroviral therapy (ART) discontinuation in simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV)-infected rhesus macaques. In these prior studies, ART was initiated early during acute infection, which limited the size and diversity of the viral reservoir. Here we evaluated in SHIV-infected rhesus macaques that did not initiate ART until 1 year into chronic infection whether the TLR7 agonist vesatolimod in combination with the bNAb PGT121, formatted either as a human IgG1, an effector enhanced IgG1, or an anti-CD3 bispecific antibody, would delay or prevent viral rebound following ART discontinuation. We found that all 3 antibody formats in combination with vesatolimod were able to prevent viral rebound following ART discontinuation in a subset of animals. These data indicate that a TLR7 agonist combined with antibodies may be a promising strategy to achieve long-term ART-free HIV remission in humans.

A survey of core replacements in indole-based HIV-1 attachment inhibitors.

Indole- and azaindole-based glyoxylyl amide derivatives have been described as HIV-1 attachment inhibitors (AIs) that act by blocking the interaction between the viral gp120 coat protein and the human host cell CD4 receptor. As part of an effort to more deeply understand the role of the indole/azaindole heterocycle in the expression of antiviral activity, a survey of potential replacements was conducted using parallel synthesis methodology. The design and optimization was guided by a simple 2-dimensional overlay based on an overall planar topography between the indole/azaindole and C-7 substituents that had been deduced from structure-activity studies leading to the discovery of temsavir (3). 2-Substituted naphthalene- and quinoline-derived chemotypes emerged as the most interesting prototypes, with C-5 and C-6 substituents enhancing antiviral potency. Despite the fact that neither of these chemotypes incorporated a H-bond donor that has been shown to engage the side chain carboxylate of Asp113 in gp120, the antiviral potency of several analogues met or exceeded that of 3, demonstrating that engaging Asp113 is not a prerequisite for potent antiviral activity.

Identification of an imidazopyridine scaffold to generate potent and selective TYK2 inhibitors that demonstrate activity in an in vivo psoriasis model.

Herein we report identification of an imidazopyridine class of potent and selective TYK2 inhibitors, exemplified by prototype 6, through constraint of the rotatable amide bond connecting the pyridine and aryl rings of compound 1. Further optimization led to generation of compound 30 that potently inhibits the TYK2 enzyme and the IL-23 pathway in cells, exhibits selectivity against cellular JAK2 activity, and has good pharmacokinetic properties. In mice, compound 30 demonstrated dose-dependent reduction of IL-17 production in a PK/PD model as well as in an imiquimod-induced psoriasis model. In this efficacy model, the IL-17 decrease was accompanied by a reduction of ear thickness indicating the potential of TYK2 inhibition as a therapeutic approach for psoriasis patients.

Compensatory substitutions in the HIV-1 capsid reduce the fitness cost associated with resistance to a capsid-targeting small-molecule inhibitor.

UNLABELLED: The HIV-1 capsid plays multiple roles in infection and is an emerging therapeutic target. The small-molecule HIV-1 inhibitor PF-3450074 (PF74) blocks HIV-1 at an early postentry stage by binding the viral capsid and interfering with its function. Selection for resistance resulted in accumulation of five amino acid changes in the viral CA protein, which collectively reduced binding of the compound to HIV-1 particles. In the present study, we dissected the individual and combinatorial contributions of each of the five substitutions Q67H, K70R, H87P, T107N, and L111I to PF74 resistance, PF74 binding, and HIV-1 infectivity. Q67H, K70R, and T107N each conferred low-level resistance to PF74 and collectively conferred strong resistance. The substitutions K70R and L111I impaired HIV-1 infectivity, which was partially restored by the other substitutions at positions 67 and 107. PF74 binding to HIV-1 particles was reduced by the Q67H, K70R, and T107N substitutions, consistent with the location of these positions in the inhibitor-binding pocket. Replication of the 5Mut virus was markedly impaired in cultured macrophages, reminiscent of the previously reported N74D CA mutant. 5Mut substitutions also reduced the binding of the host protein CPSF6 to assembled CA complexes in vitro and permitted infection of cells expressing the inhibitory protein CPSF6-358. Our results demonstrate that strong resistance to PF74 requires accumulation of multiple substitutions in CA to inhibit PF74 binding and compensate for fitness impairments associated with some of the sequence changes. IMPORTANCE: The HIV-1 capsid is an emerging drug target, and several small-molecule compounds have been reported to inhibit HIV-1 infection by targeting the capsid. Here we show that resistance to the capsid-targeting inhibitor PF74 requires multiple amino acid substitutions in the binding pocket of the CA protein. Three changes in CA were necessary to inhibit binding of PF74 while maintaining viral infectivity. Replication of the PF74-resistant HIV-1 mutant was impaired in macrophages, likely owing to altered interactions with host cell factors. Our results suggest that HIV-1 resistance to capsid-targeting inhibitors will be limited by functional constraints on the viral capsid protein. Therefore, this work enhances the attractiveness of the HIV-1 capsid as a therapeutic target.

A broadly neutralizing human monoclonal antibody directed against a novel conserved epitope on the influenza virus H3 hemagglutinin globular head.

UNLABELLED: Most neutralizing antibodies elicited during influenza virus infection or vaccination target immunodominant, variable epitopes on the globular head region of hemagglutinin (HA), which leads to narrow strain protection. In this report, we describe the properties of a unique anti-HA monoclonal antibody (MAb), D1-8, that was derived from human B cells and exhibits potent, broad neutralizing activity across antigenically diverse influenza H3 subtype viruses. Based on selection of escape variants, we show that D1-8 targets a novel epitope on the globular head region of the influenza virus HA protein. The HA residues implicated in D1-8 binding are highly conserved among H3N2 viruses and are located proximal to antigenic site D. We demonstrate that the potent in vitro antiviral activity of D1-8 translates into protective activity in mouse models of influenza virus infection. Furthermore, D1-8 exhibits superior therapeutic survival benefit in influenza virus-infected mice compared to the neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir when treatment is started late in infection. The present study suggests the potential application of this monoclonal antibody for the therapeutic treatment of H3N2 influenza virus infection. IMPORTANCE: Recently, a few globular head-targeting MAbs have been discovered that exhibit activity against different subtypes of influenza subtypes, such as H1; however, none of the previously described MAbs showed broadly neutralizing activity against diverse H3 viruses. In this report, we describe a human MAb, D1-8, that exhibits potent, broadly neutralizing activity against antigenically diverse H3 subtype viruses. The genotypic analysis of escape mutants revealed a unique putative epitope region in the globular head of H3 HA that is comprised of highly conserved residues and is distinct from the receptor binding site. Furthermore, we demonstrate that D1-8 exhibits superior therapeutic efficacy in influenza virus-infected mice compared to the neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir when treatment is started late in infection. In addition to describing a novel anti-globular head of H3 HA MAb with potent broadly neutralizing activity, our report suggests the potential of D1-8 for therapeutic treatment of seasonal influenza virus H3 infection.

A restricted role for TYK2 catalytic activity in human cytokine responses revealed by novel TYK2-selective inhibitors.

TYK2 is a JAK family protein tyrosine kinase activated in response to multiple cytokines, including type I IFNs, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, and IL-23. Extensive studies of mice that lack TYK2 expression indicate that the IFN-α, IL-12, and IL-23 pathways, but not the IL-6 or IL-10 pathways, are compromised. In contrast, there have been few studies of the role of TYK2 in primary human cells. A genetic mutation at the tyk2 locus that results in a lack of TYK2 protein in a single human patient has been linked to defects in the IFN-α, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, and IL-23 pathways, suggesting a broad role for TYK2 protein in human cytokine responses. In this article, we have used a panel of novel potent TYK2 small-molecule inhibitors with varying degrees of selectivity against other JAK kinases to address the requirement for TYK2 catalytic activity in cytokine pathways in primary human cells. Our results indicate that the biological processes that require TYK2 catalytic function in humans are restricted to the IL-12 and IL-23 pathways, and suggest that inhibition of TYK2 catalytic activity may be an efficacious approach for the treatment of select autoimmune diseases without broad immunosuppression.

Design and evaluation of novel 8-oxo-pyridopyrimidine Jak1/2 inhibitors.

A highly ligand efficient, novel 8-oxo-pyridopyrimidine containing inhibitor of Jak1 and Jak2 isoforms with a pyridone moiety as the hinge-binding motif was discovered. Structure-based design strategies were applied to significantly improve enzyme potency and the polarity of the molecule was adjusted to gain cellular activity. The crystal structures of two representative inhibitors bound to Jak1 were obtained to enable SAR exploration.

2-Amino-[1,2,4]triazolo[1,5-a]pyridines as JAK2 inhibitors.

The advancement of a series of ligand efficient 2-amino-[1,2,4]triazolo[1,5-a]pyridines, initially identified from high-throughput screening, to a JAK2 inhibitor with pharmacodynamic activity in a mouse xenograft model is disclosed.

Novel triazolo-pyrrolopyridines as inhibitors of Janus kinase 1.

The identification of a novel fused triazolo-pyrrolopyridine scaffold, optimized derivatives of which display nanomolar inhibition of Janus kinase 1, is described. Prototypical example 3 demonstrated lower cell potency shift, better permeability in cells and higher oral exposure in rat than the corresponding, previously reported, imidazo-pyrrolopyridine analogue 2. Examples 6, 7 and 18 were subsequently identified from an optimization campaign and demonstrated modest selectivity over JAK2, moderate to good oral bioavailability in rat with overall pharmacokinetic profiles comparable to that reported for an approved pan-JAK inhibitor (tofacitinib).

HIV capsid is a tractable target for small molecule therapeutic intervention.

Despite a high current standard of care in antiretroviral therapy for HIV, multidrug-resistant strains continue to emerge, underscoring the need for additional novel mechanism inhibitors that will offer expanded therapeutic options in the clinic. We report a new class of small molecule antiretroviral compounds that directly target HIV-1 capsid (CA) via a novel mechanism of action. The compounds exhibit potent antiviral activity against HIV-1 laboratory strains, clinical isolates, and HIV-2, and inhibit both early and late events in the viral replication cycle. We present mechanistic studies indicating that these early and late activities result from the compound affecting viral uncoating and assembly, respectively. We show that amino acid substitutions in the N-terminal domain of HIV-1 CA are sufficient to confer resistance to this class of compounds, identifying CA as the target in infected cells. A high-resolution co-crystal structure of the compound bound to HIV-1 CA reveals a novel binding pocket in the N-terminal domain of the protein. Our data demonstrate that broad-spectrum antiviral activity can be achieved by targeting this new binding site and reveal HIV CA as a tractable drug target for HIV therapy.

Structure-based discovery of C-2 substituted imidazo-pyrrolopyridine JAK1 inhibitors with improved selectivity over JAK2.

Herein we describe our successful efforts in obtaining C-2 substituted imidazo-pyrrolopyridines with improved JAK1 selectivity relative to JAK2 by targeting an amino acid residue that differs between the two isoforms (JAK1: E966; JAK2: D939). Efforts to improve cellular potency by reducing the polarity of the inhibitors are also detailed. The X-ray crystal structure of a representative inhibitor in complex with the JAK1 enzyme is also disclosed.

New small-molecule inhibitor class targeting human immunodeficiency virus type 1 virion maturation.

A new small-molecule inhibitor class that targets virion maturation was identified from a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) antiviral screen. PF-46396, a representative molecule, exhibits antiviral activity against HIV-1 laboratory strains and clinical isolates in T-cell lines and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). PF-46396 specifically inhibits the processing of capsid (CA)/spacer peptide 1 (SP1) (p25), resulting in the accumulation of CA/SP1 (p25) precursor proteins and blocked maturation of the viral core particle. Viral variants resistant to PF-46396 contain a single amino acid substitution in HIV-1 CA sequences (CAI201V), distal to the CA/SP1 cleavage site in the primary structure, which we demonstrate is sufficient to confer significant resistance to PF-46396 and 3-O-(3',3'-dimethylsuccinyl) betulinic acid (DSB), a previously described maturation inhibitor. Conversely, a single amino substitution in SP1 (SP1A1V), which was previously associated with DSB in vitro resistance, was sufficient to confer resistance to DSB and PF-46396. Further, the CAI201V substitution restored CA/SP1 processing in HIV-1-infected cells treated with PF-46396 or DSB. Our results demonstrate that PF-46396 acts through a mechanism that is similar to DSB to inhibit the maturation of HIV-1 virions. To our knowledge, PF-46396 represents the first small-molecule HIV-1 maturation inhibitor that is distinct in chemical class from betulinic acid-derived maturation inhibitors (e.g., DSB), demonstrating that molecules of diverse chemical classes can inhibit this mechanism.

Inhibitors of HIV-1 attachment. Part 3: A preliminary survey of the effect of structural variation of the benzamide moiety on antiviral activity.

1-(4-Benzoylpiperazin-1-yl)-2-(1H-indol-3-yl)ethane-1,2-dione (1a) has been characterized as an inhibitor of HIV-1 attachment that interferes with the interaction of viral gp120 with the host cell receptor CD4. In previous studies, the effect of indole substitution pattern on antiviral activity was probed. In this Letter, the effect of structural variation of the benzamide moiety is described, a study that reveals the potential or the phenyl moiety to be replaced by five-membered heterocyclic rings and a restricted tolerance for the introduction of substituents to the phenyl ring.

Inhibitors of HIV-1 attachment. Part 4: A study of the effect of piperazine substitution patterns on antiviral potency in the context of indole-based derivatives.

4-Fluoro- and 4-methoxy-1-(4-benzoylpiperazin-1-yl)-2-(1H-indol-3-yl)ethane-1,2-dione (2 and 3, respectively) have been characterized as potent inhibitors of HIV-1 attachment that interfere with the interaction of viral gp120 with the host cell receptor CD4. As part of an effort to understand fundamental aspects of this pharmacophore, discovered originally using a high throughput cell-based screen, modification and substitution of the piperazine ring was examined in the context of compounds 6a-ah. The piperazine ring was shown to be a critical element of the HIV-1 attachment inhibiting pharmacophore, acting as a scaffold to deploy the indole glyoxamide and benzamide in a topographical relationship that complements the binding site on gp120.

Inhibitors of HIV-1 attachment. Part 2: An initial survey of indole substitution patterns.

The effects of introducing simple halogen, alkyl, and alkoxy substituents to the 4, 5, 6 and 7 positions of 1-(4-benzoylpiperazin-1-yl)-2-(1H-indol-3-yl)ethane-1,2-dione, an inhibitor of the interaction between HIV gp120 and host cell CD4 receptors, on activity in an HIV entry assay was examined. Small substituents at C-4 generally resulted in increased potency whilst substitution at C-7 was readily tolerated and uniformly produced more potent HIV entry inhibitors. Substituents deployed at C-6 and, particularly, C-5 generally produced a modest to marked weakening of potency compared to the prototype. Small alkyl substituents at N-1 exerted minimal effect on activity whilst increasing the size of the alkyl moiety led to progressively reduced inhibitory properties. These studies establish a basic understanding of the indole element of the HIV attachment inhibitor pharmacophore.

Cell-based and biochemical screening approaches for the discovery of novel HIV-1 inhibitors.

The identification of novel HIV-1 inhibitors is facilitated by screening campaigns that combine the right screening strategy with a large diverse collection of drug-like compounds. Cell-based screening approaches offer some advantages in the quest for novel inhibitors because they can include multiple targets in a single screen and in some cases reveal targets and/or structures not captured in biochemical assays. However, follow-up activities for cell-based screens are often more complicated and resource intensive when compared to biochemical screens. Alternatively, biochemical screens usually offer the advantage of focusing on a single target with a well-defined set of follow-up assays. In this review we cover multiple cell-based and biochemical assay formats, many of which were designed to identify inhibitors that act through new mechanisms. Some of the assays discussed have been utilized in antiviral screens while others might be formatted for HTS or utilized as secondary assays in a screening campaign. As drug discovery efforts in the pharmaceutical industry shift away from traditional strategies, new approaches such as those presented here are likely to play a significant role in the identification of next generation HIV-1 inhibitors.

A novel HIV-1 antiviral high throughput screening approach for the discovery of HIV-1 inhibitors.

Antiviral high throughput screens remain a viable option for identifying novel target inhibitors. However, few antiviral screens have been reduced to practice on an industrial scale. In this study, we describe an HIV-1 dual reporter assay that allows for the simultaneous evaluation of the potential antiviral activities and cytotoxicities of compounds in a high throughput screen (HTS) format. We validate the assay with known HIV-1 inhibitors and show that the antiviral and cytotoxic activities of compounds are reproducibly measured under screening conditions. In addition, we show that the assay exhibits parameters (e.g., signal-to-background ratios and Z' coefficients) suitable for high throughout screening. In a pilot screen, we demonstrate that non-specific or cytotoxic compounds represent a significant fraction of the hits identified in an antiviral screen and that these false positives are identified and deprioritized by the HIV-1 dual reporter assay at the primary screening step. We propose that the HIV-1 dual reporter assay represents a novel approach to HIV-1 antiviral screening that allows for the effective execution of industrial scale HTS campaigns with significantly greater returns on resource investment when compared to previous methods.

Discovery of 4-benzoyl-1-[(4-methoxy-1H- pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridin-3-yl)oxoacetyl]-2- (R)-methylpiperazine (BMS-378806): a novel HIV-1 attachment inhibitor that interferes with CD4-gp120 interactions.

Indole derivative 1 interferes with the interaction of the HIV surface protein gp120 with the host cell receptor CD4. The 4-fluoro derivative 2 exhibited markedly enhanced potency and was bioavailable in the rat, dog, and cynomolgus monkey when administered orally as a solution formulation. However, aqueous suspensions of 2 were poorly bioavailable, indicative of dissolution-limited absorption. The 7-azaindole derivative 3, BMS-378806, exhibited improved pharmaceutical properties while retaining the HIV-1 inhibitory profile of 2.

Lead identification of novel and selective TYK2 inhibitors.

A therapeutic rationale is proposed for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, such as psoriasis and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), by selective targeting of TYK2. Hit triage, following a high-throughput screen for TYK2 inhibitors, revealed pyridine 1 as a promising starting point for lead identification. Initial expansion of 3 separate regions of the molecule led to eventual identification of cyclopropyl amide 46, a potent lead analog with good kinase selectivity, physicochemical properties, and pharmacokinetic profile. Analysis of the binding modes of the series in TYK2 and JAK2 crystal structures revealed key interactions leading to good TYK2 potency and design options for future optimization of selectivity.

Identification of C-2 hydroxyethyl imidazopyrrolopyridines as potent JAK1 inhibitors with favorable physicochemical properties and high selectivity over JAK2.

Herein we report on the structure-based discovery of a C-2 hydroxyethyl moiety which provided consistently high levels of selectivity for JAK1 over JAK2 to the imidazopyrrolopyridine series of JAK1 inhibitors. X-ray structures of a C-2 hydroxyethyl analogue in complex with both JAK1 and JAK2 revealed differential ligand/protein interactions between the two isoforms and offered an explanation for the observed selectivity. Analysis of historical data from related molecules was used to develop a set of physicochemical compound design parameters to impart desirable properties such as acceptable membrane permeability, potent whole blood activity, and a high degree of metabolic stability. This work culminated in the identification of a highly JAK1 selective compound (31) exhibiting favorable oral bioavailability across a range of preclinical species and robust efficacy in a rat CIA model.