Acute effects of dryland muscular endurance and maximum strength training on sprint swimming performance in young swimmers.

The study examined acute effects of dryland muscular endurance (ME) and maximum strength (MS) sessions on performance, physiological, and biomechanical variables during a subsequent sprint swimming session. Twenty-seven swimmers (16.5 ± 2.6 yrs) completed three experimental conditions including: i) ME, 55% of 1-repetition maximum, ii) MS, 90% of 1-repetition maximum, and iii) control (CON, no dry-land). Twenty minutes following ME, MS and CON sessions swimmers performed a 10-s tethered swimming sprint, four by 50-m (4 × 50-m), and a 100-m front crawl sprints. Performance time, blood lactate, heart rate (HR), stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL), stroke index (SI), and stroke efficiency (ηF) were measured during 4 × 50-m and 100-m. Hand grip strength (HG), and shoulder muscles isometric strength (ISO) were measured after each session. Mean 4 × 50-m time increased in ME compared to CON by 1.7 ± 2.7% (p = 0.01), while 100-m time was similar among conditions (p > 0.05). ISO was lower after dry-land training in all conditions (p = 0.01). Tethered force, HG, HR, SR, SL, SI, and ηF were no different between conditions (p > 0.05). Dryland ME session decrease swimming performance; however, ME and MS sessions did not affect technical ability during a subsequent maximum intensity swimming.

High-Intensity Conditioning Activity Causes Localized Postactivation Performance Enhancement and Nonlocalized Performance Reduction.

ABSTRACT: Kolinger D, Stastny P, Pisz A, Krzysztofik M, Wilk M, Tsoukos A, and Bogdanis GC. High-intensity conditioning activity causes localized postactivation performance enhancement and nonlocalized performance reduction. J Strength Cond Res 38(1): e1-e7, 2024-This study aimed to examine whether a conditioning activity (CA) performed by the legs (barbell back squat) may cause postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE) on muscle groups other than leg extensors in isokinetic (eccentric [ECC] and concentric [CON]) and dynamic movement. Twelve male basketball players (age: 21.3 ± 3.2, body mass: 89.6 ± 14.1 kg, height: 187.4 ± 4.6 cm, and 1 repetition maximum (1RM) barbell back squat: 113 ± 21 kg) with previous resistance-training experience of at least 2 years, performed 3 sets of 3-4 repetitions of back-squats with submaximal load (60, 90, and 90% 1RM) as CA. Before and after the CA, they performed pretest and post-test in the form of countermovement jumps (CMJs) (localized) or explosive push-ups (EPUs) (nonlocalized) along with isokinetic flexion and extension at the knee (localized) or at the elbow (nonlocalized). The localized and nonlocalized protocols were divided into 2 days in a randomized order. The back squat as CA significantly increased peak torque (PT) (p < 0.05) in all CON and ECC muscle actions and average power per repetition (APPR) (p < 0.05) (all muscle actions except ECC flexion) of the localized isokinetic tests with large (>0.8) and medium (0.4-0.79) effect sizes and significantly decreased (p < 0.01) the PT and APPR (p < 0.01) of the nonlocalized isokinetic test in the ECC flexion. The CMJ and EPU tests showed no significant differences (p > 0.05) between premeasures and postmeasures of take-off height. The effect of PAPE seems to be specific to the muscles most involved in the CA, and the CA inhibits PT of subsequent muscle ECC contractions in muscles not involved in the CA.

Endocrine responses of the stress system to different types of exercise.

Physical activity is an important part of human lifestyle although a large percentage of the population remains sedentary. Exercise represents a stress paradigm in which many regulatory endocrine systems are involved to achieve homeostasis. These endocrine adaptive responses may be either beneficial or harmful in case they exceed a certain threshold. The aim of this review is to examine the adaptive endocrine responses of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), catecholamines, cytokines, growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL) to a single bout or regular exercise of three distinct types of exercise, namely endurance, high-intensity interval (HIIE) and resistance exercise. In summary, a single bout of endurance exercise induces cortisol increase, while regular endurance exercise-induced activation of the HPA axis results to relatively increased basal cortisolemia; single bout or regular exercise induce similar GH peak responses; regular HIIE training lowers basal cortisol concentrations, while catecholamine response is reduced in regular HIIE compared with a single bout of HIIE. HPA axis response to resistance exercise depends on the intensity and volume of the exercise. A single bout of resistance exercise is characterized by mild HPA axis stimulation while regular resistance training in elderly results in attenuated inflammatory response and decreased resting cytokine concentrations. In conclusion, it is important to consider which type of exercise and what threshold is suitable for different target groups of exercising people. This approach intends to suggest types of exercise appropriate for different target groups in health and disease and subsequently to introduce them as medical prescription models.

Acute Effects of Varied Back Squat Activation Protocols on Muscle-Tendon Stiffness and Jumping Performance.

ABSTRACT: Krzysztofik, M, Wilk, M, Pisz, A, Kolinger, D, Tsoukos, A, Zajac, A, Stastny, P, and Bogdanis, GC. Acute effects of varied back squat activation protocols on muscle-tendon stiffness and jumping performance. J Strength Cond Res 37(7): 1419-1427, 2023-Intensity, movement velocity, and volume are the principal factors to successfully use postactivation performance enhancement. Therefore, 15 resistance-trained volleyball players completed 3 different back squat configurations as a conditioning activity (CA) in randomized order: (a) 3 sets of 3 repetitions at 85% 1RM (HL); (b) a single set of back squats at 60% 1RM until 10% mean velocity loss (VB); (c) and 2 sets of back squats at 60% 1RM until 10% mean velocity loss (2VB) on subsequent countermovement jump performance, Achilles tendon, and vastus lateralis stiffness with concomitant front thigh skin surface temperature assessment. The measurements were performed 5 minutes before the CA and at 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 minutes. The jump height was significantly increased in the second minute and at peak, post-CA compared with baseline for all conditions ( p = 0.049; ES = 0.23 and p < 0.001; ES = 0.37). Skin surface temperature was significantly increased for all post-CA time points compared with baseline in the 2VB condition ( p from <0.001-0.023; ES = 0.39-1.04) and in the fourth minute and at peak post-CA in HL condition ( p = 0.023; ES = 0.69 and p = 0.04; ES = 0.46), whereas for the VB condition, a significant decrease in peak post-CA was found ( p = 0.004; ES = -0.54). Achilles tendon stiffness was significantly decreased for second, fourth, eighth, 10th, and peak post-CA in comparison to baseline for all conditions ( p from p = 0.004-0.038; ES = -0.47 to -0.69). Vastus lateralis stiffness was significantly decreased for peak post-CA compared with baseline for all conditions ( p = 0.017; ES = -0.42). We recommend using a single set of barbell squats with a 10% velocity loss as a mechanism of fatigue control to acutely improve jump height performance and avoid unnecessary increases in training volume.

Postactivation Performance Enhancement of Concentric Bench Press Throw After Eccentric-Only Conditioning Exercise.

ABSTRACT: Krzysztofik, M, Wilk, M, Lockie, RG, Golas, A, Zajac, A, and Bogdanis, GC. Postactivation performance enhancement of concentric bench press throw after eccentric-only conditioning exercise. J Strength Cond Res 36(8): 2077-2081, 2022-This study examined changes in power output and bar velocity in the concentric-only bench press throw (CON ONLY ) after sets of eccentric-only bench press exercises (ECC ONLY ) at 2 supramaximal loads. Thirteen strength-trained men participated in this study (age = 25.7 ± 1.9 years, body mass = 94.8 ± 8 kg, 1 repetition maximum [1RM] = 147 ± 14.2 kg, and strength training experience = 6.5 ± 2.2 years). The subjects performed 2 conditioning sets of the bench press exercise of 2 repetitions each, with a 5-minute rest interval between sets, using the ECC ONLY mode against 110% or 130% of concentric 1RM load. The 1 repetition of the CON ONLY bench press throw with a load of 30% 1RM was performed before and 5 minutes after the conditioning activity (CA) to assess changes in peak power (PP) and peak velocity (PV). The differences between the analyzed variables before and after the CA were determined using a 2-way repeated measures analysis of variance. There was an increase of PP by 10.5 ± 6.0% (effect size [ES] = 0.34) and 9.9 ± 8.1% (ES = 0.33) for the 110 and 130% of concentric 1RM conditions, respectively, with no difference between the 2 conditions ( p < 0.01 main effect time, no interaction). Similarly, PV increased by 5.9 ± 5.5% (ES = 0.40) and 6.1 ± 6.1% (ES = 0.43) for the 110 and 130% of concentric 1RM conditions, respectively, with no difference between the 2 conditions ( p < 0.01 main effect time, no interaction). Activation with an ECC ONLY contraction and loads exceeding 1RM are effective at improving power output and bar velocity during the CON ONLY bench press throw.

High-Intensity Functional Training Improves Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Neuromuscular Performance Without Inflammation or Muscle Damage.

ABSTRACT: Posnakidis, G, Aphamis, G, Giannaki, CD, Mougios, V, Aristotelous, P, Samoutis, G, and Bogdanis, GC. High-intensity functional training improves cardiorespiratory fitness and neuromuscular performance without inflammation or muscle damage. J Strength Cond Res 36(3): 615-623, 2022-We examined the effects of high-intensity functional training (HIFT) on cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular performance, as well as on inflammatory and muscle damage markers. Thirteen physically active healthy volunteers (aged 28.3 ± 3.8 years, 5 men and 8 women) underwent 8 weeks of a group HIFT program performed 3 times per week. Each session consisted of 4 rounds of a 9-exercise circuit (30-second exercise and 15-second recovery). During the first and last weeks of training, venous blood was sampled daily to monitor changes in serum C-reactive protein (CRP) and creatine kinase (CK). After 8 weeks of HIFT, body fat decreased by 0.64 ± 1.01 kg (p = 0.041), maximal oxygen uptake improved by 1.9 ± 2.2 ml·kg-1·min-1 (p = 0.009), countermovement jump by 2.6 ± 1.5 cm (p = 0.001), bench press 1-repetition maximum (1RM) by 4.5 ± 3.8 kg (p = 0.001), maximum number of bench press repetitions at 65% 1RM by 4 ± 5 repetitions (p = 0.03), and abdominal muscle endurance by 6 ± 4 repetitions (p < 0.001). In both week 1 and week 8 of training, CK increased mildly in the morning after the first session of the week (main effect for day, p = 0.008), whereas no significant changes were observed in CRP (p = 0.31). During week 8, CK on all days was ∼32% lower compared with week 1 (160 vs. 235 U·L-1; main effect of week 1 vs. week 8, p = 0.027), whereas CRP remained unchanged (p = 0.225). This HIFT program was effective in improving cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular physical fitness without causing significant inflammation or muscle damage in physically active subjects.

Short-Term Blood Flow Restriction Increases Power Output and Bar Velocity During the Bench Press.

ABSTRACT: Wilk, M, Krzysztofik, M, Filip, A, Zajac, A, Bogdanis, GC, and Lockie, RG. Short-term blood flow restriction increases power output and bar velocity during the bench press. J Strength Cond Res 36(8): 2082-2088, 2022-This study examined the effect of blood flow restriction (BFR) with 2 different types of cuffs on peak power output (PP), mean power output (MP), peak bar velocity (PV), and mean bar velocity (MV) in the bench press exercise (BP). Fourteen healthy strength-trained male athletes (age = 27.6 ± 3.5 years; body mass = 84.1 ± 8.0 kg; height = 175.8 ± 6.7 cm; BP 1 repetition maximum [RM] = 138.6 ± 17.8 kg) performed 3 different testing protocols as follows: without BFR (NO-BFR), BFR with a narrow cuff (BFR NARROW ), and BFR with a wide cuff (BFR WIDE ) in a randomized crossover design. During all sessions, subjects performed one set of 3 repetitions of the BP exercise using 70% 1RM. Cuff pressure was set to approximately 90% full arterial occlusion pressure of the upper limb at rest. Analyses of variance showed an increase in PP (by 21%, p < 0.01; effect size [ES] = 1.67), MP (by 16%, p < 0.01; ES = 0.93), PV (by 22%, p < 0.01; ES = 1.79), and MV (by 21%, p < 0.01; ES = 1.36) during BFR WIDE compared with NO-BFR and a significant increase in PP (by 15%, p < 0.01; ES = 1.07), MP (by 17%, p < 0.01; ES = 0.78), PV (by 18%, p < 0.01; ES = 1.65), and MV (by 13% p < 0.01; ES = 1.00) during BFR WIDE compared with BFR NARROW . There were no significant differences in any of the variable between NO-BFR and BFR NARROW . The results of the study indicate that short-term BFR training increases power output and bar velocity during the BP exercise. However, only BFR WIDE significantly influenced bar velocity and power output, which indicates that the width of the cuff is a critical factor determining acute exercise adaptation during BFR resistance training.

Bout duration in high-intensity interval exercise modifies hematologic, metabolic and antioxidant responses.

Objective: This study compared hematologic, metabolic and antioxidant responses between three high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) trials of different bout duration and a continuous exercise trial (CON), all with equal average intensity, total work, and duration. Methods: Eleven healthy young males performed four trials involving 20 min of cycling, either continuously (49% of power at VO2max, PPO), or intermittently with 48 10-s bouts (HIIE10), 16 30-s bouts (HIIE30) or 8 60-s bouts (HIIE60) at 100% PPO, with a 1:1.5 work-to-recovery ratio at 15% PPO. Venous blood was obtained before, immediately after, and 1 h post-exercise to evaluate hematologic, metabolic and antioxidant responses. Blood lactate concentration was measured in capillary blood during exercise, while urine lactate was measured before and 1 h post-exercise. Results: Post-exercise leukocyte count (mean ± SD; 9.7 ± 2.8 k µL-1), uric acid concentration (0.35 ± 0.10 mmol L-1), glucose concentration (6.56 ± 1.44 mmol L-1), and plasma volume change (-13.5 ± 4.4%) were greater in HIIE60 compared to all other trials (p < 0.05). One-hour post-exercise, lymphocytes decreased below pre-exercise values in all HIIE trials, and uric acid increased in the HIIE60 trial (p < 0.05). Urine lactate concentration 1 h post-exercise increased compared to pre-exercise only in HIIE60 (19-fold, p < 0.001), and this was related with the higher blood lactate concentration during exercise in that trial. Conclusions: These findings highlight the importance of bout duration, given that shorter bouts of HIIE (30 s or 10 s) induce lower blood cell perturbations, metabolic stress, and antioxidant responses compared to the commonly used 1-min bouts, despite equal total work, duration, and work-to-recovery ratio.

Physiological, perceptual and affective responses to high-intensity interval training using two work-matched programs with different bout duration in obese males.

Objectives: This study compared physiological, perceptual, and affective responses to high-intensity interval training (HIIT) between two work-matched programs with different bout durations in obese males. Methods: Sixteen low-to-moderately active obese men completed an eight-week cycling program of supervised HIIT (3 days/week) using either short bouts [48 × 10 s at 100% of peak power output (PPO) with 15 s of recovery (HIIT10)] or long bouts [8 × 60 s at 100% PPO with 90 s of recovery (HIIT60)]. Workload was progressively adjusted, to maintain high intensity (100% PPO), throughout training. Blood lactate (BLa), heart rate (HR), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), and feeling scale ratings (pleasure/displeasure) were measured in each HIIT session. Results: Average HR decreased in the last 2 weeks of training in both groups by 2.2 ± 1.8% of peak HR (p < 0.001). Training resulted in a reduction in BLa during exercise by 28 ± 19% (p < 0.001) from the 10th min onward only in HIIT10. Similarly, during the last weeks of training, RPE decreased (by 1.0 ± 1.1 units, p < 0.05) and feeling scale ratings were improved only in HIIT10, while RPE remained unchanged and feeling scale ratings deteriorated in HIIT60 (from 3.0 ± 1.1 to 2.1 ± 0.9 units, p < 0.001). No differences in post-exercise enjoyment were found. Conclusion: Both HIIT formats induced similar HR adaptations, but improvement of BLa, perceptual and affective responses occurred only when bout duration was shorter. Our findings suggest that, in low-to-moderately active obese men, HIIT may be more effective in improving metabolic, perceptual, and affective responses when shorter, rather than longer, bouts of exercise are used.

Acute and delayed hormonal and blood cell count responses to high-intensity exercise before and after short-term high-intensity interval training.

The acute and delayed hormonal and blood cell responses to a high-intensity interval training (HIIT) session, were examined before and after a 3-week intervention (9 HIIT sessions of 4-6 × 30 s high-intensity cycling bouts) in eight recreationally active male volunteers (age: 24.3 ± 1.4 y, VO2max: 41.2 ± 3.2 ml/kg/min). Blood samples were collected before and 0.5, 24, 48 h following the first and last training session. Before training, the HIIT session induced acute increases in cortisol, prolactin and TSH concentration, while free-T4 peaked 24 h later (p < 0.001) and testosterone remained unchanged. White blood cell count was increased 0.5 h after exercise (p < 0.001), while lymphocyte percentage decreased 24 h post exercise (p < 0.01). After three weeks of HIIT, cortisol, WBC and lymphocyte responses were decreased by ~42% (p = 0.002), 8.6% (p = 0.032) and 9.6% (p = 0.039), respectively, despite an increase in total work. These findings show that short-term HIIT may induce rapid adaptations of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and may blunt exercise-induced immune responses.

Effects of Unilateral Conditioning Activity on Acute Performance Enhancement: A Systematic Review.

This review aimed to summarize the reported effects of unilateral conditioning activity (CA) on unilateral performance, bilateral performance, and the contribution of activated body limb to bilateral performance. A systematic search on MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and Google Scholar was conducted on February 2022. Twenty-three studies met the inclusion criteria. Throwing, jumping, swimming, change of direction, and isokinetic performance were used as outcome measures to assess the impact of unilateral CAs on inducing post-activation performance enhancement. Eleven studies examined the effectiveness of resistance exercises as a CA, seven investigated plyometric exercises, and five used isokinetic muscle actions as CAs. Notably, only three studies directly compared the effects of bilateral and unilateral CA, and no study reported possible changes in the contribution of each limb during bilateral exercises executed following unilateral CA. Split squats were the most often studied CA (7), and it was shown that multiple sets of high-loaded split squats (85% one-repetition maximum) executed as CA, improve vertical jumping and change of direction after 4 to 8 min of recovery. At the same time, multiple sets of alternate leg bounds performed with ~10% body weight or without any external load result in an improvement of sprint performance, 2 and 8 min later, with the effect being greater when loaded jumps are used. The unilateral CAs such as split squats, alternate leg bounds, and drop jumps can be effectively used to acutely improve a wide variety of athletic tasks, including jumping, sprinting, change of direction, and swimming performance.

Changes in EMG and movement velocity during a set to failure against different loads in the bench press exercise.

This study examined changes in movement velocity and surface electromyographic (sEMG) activity of the pectoralis major (PM) and triceps brachii (TB) muscles during the bench press exercise to failure against different loads. Fourteen men performed a set to failure with maximum intended velocity, against low (40%-1 repetition maximum-RM), moderate (60%-1RM), and heavy loads (80%-1RM). Number of repetitions, volume load, mean and peak velocity, and total time increased with decreasing load (40% > 60% > 80%, p < 0.01). sEMG comparisons between different loads were performed by matching time under tension at the initial, middle, and last part of the set. sEMG was higher in the middle and last repetitions, compared with the initial, for all loads in both muscles (p < 0.001). sEMG activity of both muscles was higher in the 60% and 80%-1RM conditions compared with the 40%1-RM (p < 0.007). Also, sEMG of both muscles was similar for the 60%-1RM and 80%-1RM loads at the initial, middle, and last repetitions, with the exception of the last repetitions for the TB muscle. In contrast, sEMG integrated activity was higher for the 40% 1-RM and 60% 1-RM (p < 0.01) compared with the 80% 1-RM load. Mean velocity loss at exhaustion and drop in sEMG median frequency were greater in the 40% and 60%-1RM compared with the 80%-1RM condition (p < 0.05). It was concluded that performing a set to exhaustion with maximum intended velocity using a load of 60% 1-RM combines the characteristics of the high average sEMG activity of heavier loads, and the high total integrated sEMG observed at lighter loads.

Effect of preconditioning exercise on biceps brachii myotendinous junction displacement during elbow flexor eccentric exercise.

The present study tested the hypothesis that 30 low-intensity (10%) eccentric contractions (10%EC) or two maximal voluntary isometric contractions at a long muscle length (2MVIC) that were performed at two days before maximal eccentric exercise of the elbow flexors consisting of five sets of six maximal eccentric contractions (MaxEC) would reduce increases in biceps brachii distal myotendinous junction displacement (MTJd) over the eccentric contractions during MaxEC. Sedentary young men were randomly placed (n = 12/group) to a control group that performed two bouts of MaxEC (CONT-1st, CONT-2nd) separated by two weeks, or one of two preconditioning groups that performed 10%EC or 2MVIC at 20° elbow flexion at two days prior to MaxEC. All exercises were performed by the non-dominant arm. MTJd of each contraction was assessed by B-mode ultrasound, and its changes over sets were compared among the groups. The average MTJd from the start to the end of six eccentric contractions in the first set was similar among the groups (6.4 ± 0.7 mm). The MTJd increased from the first to fifth set, but the increase was smaller (P < .05) for the 10%EC (13 ± 6%) and 2MVIC (16 ± 9%) groups, and CONT-2nd (3 ± 6%) when compared with CONT-1st (60 ± 12%). Both 10%EC and 2MVIC groups showed smaller (P < .05) changes in all muscle damage markers after MaxEC similarly when compared with CONT-1st, but the changes were greater than those after CONT-2nd. These results supported the hypothesis that protective effect was associated with less MTJd changes, suggesting that this is associated with the mechanisms underpinning the preconditioning effect on muscle damage.

Potentiation of Bench Press Throw Performance Using a Heavy Load and Velocity-Based Repetition Control.

ABSTRACT: Tsoukos, A, Brown, LE, Terzis, G, Veligekas, P, and Bogdanis, GC. Potentiation of bench press throw performance using a heavy load and velocity-based repetition control. J Strength Cond Res 35(2S): S72-S79, 2021-The acute effects of heavy load bench press exercise on subsequent bench press throw (BPT) performance and surface electromyographic (sEMG) activity were examined using movement velocity control. Eleven resistance-trained men completed 3 conditions in randomized and counterbalanced order. In 2 conditions, bench press was performed as fast as possible against a load of 80% of 1 repetition maximum, until mean velocity dropped to 90% (C90) or 70% (C70) of the fastest repetition. In the control condition, no bench press was performed. Single maximal BPT efforts were performed in all conditions after warm-up and throughout the 12 minutes of subsequent recovery. Mean propulsive velocity (MPV), peak velocity (PV), and sEMG activity of the prime mover muscles were measured during the BPT efforts. The total number of repetitions and volume load during bench press were significantly greater in C70 compared with C90 (6.5 ± 1.9 vs. 3.4 ± 0.9 repetitions and 557.8 ± 177.8 vs. 293.8 ± 95.7 kg, p < 0.01). In C90, MPV was increased 5.3-7.4% (p < 0.01) for a prolonged period (4-12 minutes), while in C70, MPV increased only at 10 minutes (+5.9%, p < 0.01) and 12 minutes (+4.3%, p < 0.01). Peak velocity was improved only in the C90 at 8-12th min by 3.6-4.7% (p ≤ 0.05). Surface electromyographic activity of the pectoralis major muscle was significantly greater than baseline at 10 minutes of recovery only in the C90 (p < 0.01). Performance gains may be optimized by taking into account the individual fatigue profiles, allowing a percentage drop of only 10% in movement velocity during the conditioning bench press exercise.

Effect of a Supplementary Periodized Complex Strength Training and Tapering Period on Postactivation Potentiation of Sport-Specific Explosive Performance in Adolescent National-Level Fencers.

ABSTRACT: Kontochristopoulos, N, Bogdanis, GC, Paradisis, G, and Tsolakis, C. Effect of a supplementary periodized complex strength training and tapering period on postactivation potentiation of sport-specific explosive performance in adolescent national-level fencers. J Strength Cond Res 35(6): 1662-1670, 2021-This study examined the effects of strength training and tapering on countermovement jump (CMJ), change of direction (COD), and step-lunge (SL) after a conditioning activity in adolescent fencers. Twenty fencers (age: 15.8 ± 1.2 years) were randomly assigned to experimental (EXP, n = 10) group and control (CON, n = 10) group. EXP and CON groups performed 8 weeks of fencing training (4 times per week), while EXP group performed a supplementary strength training program twice per week, including a hypertrophy (first 2 weeks) and a complex strength training period (6 weeks). A 14-day tapering period with reduced training volume was then applied in both groups. Conditioning activity consisted of 3 × 3 seconds of maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC; half-squat; knee angle = 90°), followed by either CMJ or COD or SL performance measurements in 3 different testing sessions 24 hours apart. There was no performance enhancement in all tests for both EXP and CON groups, after the conditioning MVIC before training (p > 0.05). After training, half-squat dynamic strength (1 repetition maximum [1RM]) was significantly increased only in the EXP group (from 74.8 ± 20.0 to 127.0 ± 28.9 kg, p = 0.001) and maintained after tapering. After tapering, baseline CMJ height was significantly increased only in the EXP group (from 27.2 ± 4.6 to 30.9 ± 3.8 cm, p = 0.003). Contrary to our hypothesis, the increase in 1RM and CMJ was not followed by a postactivation potentiation enhancement in all tests (p > 0.05), possibly because of the relatively low strength and jumping performance of fencers. Thus, adolescent high-level fencers do not exhibit a performance increase after MVIC, and this was not modified by the supplementary strength training protocol used.

Effect of Concurrent Power Training and High-Intensity Interval Cycling on Muscle Morphology and Performance.

ABSTRACT: Spiliopoulou, P, Zaras, N, Methenitis, S, Papadimas, G, Papadopoulos, C, Bogdanis, GC, and Terzis, G. Effect of concurrent power training and high-intensity interval cycling on muscle morphology and performance. J Strength Cond Res 35(9): 2464-2471, 2021-The aim of the study was to examine the effect of performing high-intensity interval cycling on muscle morphology and performance immediately after power training (PT). Twenty healthy female physical education students were assigned into 2 training groups. One group performed PT, and the other group performed the same PT followed by high-intensity interval aerobic training on a cycle ergometer (PTC). Training was performed 3 days per week for 6 weeks. Countermovement jump (CMJ) height and CMJ power, half-squat maximal strength (1 repetition maximum), maximum aerobic power, vastus lateralis muscle fiber composition, and cross-sectional area (CSA) were evaluated before and after the intervention. Countermovement jump height increased after PT (10.1 ± 6.6%, p = 0.002) but not after PTC (-5.1 ± 10.5%, p = 0.099), with significant difference between groups (p = 0.001). Countermovement jump power increased after PT (4.5 ± 4.9%, p = 0.021) but not after PTC (-2.4 ± 6.4, p = 0.278), with significant difference between groups (p = 0.017). One repetition maximum increased similarly in both groups. Muscle fiber composition was not altered after either PT or PTC. Vastus lateralis muscle fiber CSA increased significantly and similarly after both PT (I: 16.9 ± 16.2%, p = 0.035, ΙΙΑ: 12.7 ± 10.9%, p = 0.008,ΙΙΧ: 15.5 ± 17.1%, p = 0.021) and PTC (Ι: 18.0 ± 23.7%, p = 0.033,ΙΙΑ: 18.2 ± 11.4%, p = 0.001,ΙΙΧ: 25.5 ± 19.6%, p = 0.003). These results suggest that the addition of high-intensity interval cycling to PT inhibits the anticipated increase in jumping performance induced by PT per se. This inhibition is not explained by changes in muscle fiber type composition or vastus lateralis muscle fiber CSA adaptations.

Effects of Exercise Structure and Modality on Physiological and Perceptual Responses to Exercise.

ABSTRACT: Bogdanis, GC, Mallios, VJ, Katsikas, C, Fouseki, T, Holman, I, Smith, C, and Astorino, TA. Effects of exercise structure and modality on physiological and perceptual responses to exercise. J Strength Cond Res 35(9): 2427-2432, 2021-This study examined the effect of exercise mode and intensity on physiological and perceptual responses to exercise. Twelve active adults (6 men and 6 women, age = 21.7 ± 1.6 years) initially performed incremental testing on the treadmill (TM) and cycle ergometer (CE) to assess maximal oxygen uptake (V̇o2max) and ventilatory threshold (VT). During the next 4 visits in a randomized order, subjects performed 20 minutes of moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) at an intensity 20% below VT on the TM (TMMICE) and cycle ergometer (CEMICE) as well as time-matched high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE; 10 1-minute bouts at workload equal to 20% above VT followed by 1-minute active recovery) on both modes (TMHIIE and CEHIIE). During exercise, gas exchange data, blood lactate concentration, and perceptual responses (rating of perceived exertion, affective valence, and enjoyment) were assessed. Heart rate (p < 0.001) and V̇o2 (p < 0.001) were higher in response to TMHIIE vs. CEHIIE as well as TMMICE vs. CEMICE. Blood lactate concentration was higher (p = 0.003) in response to CEHIIE vs. TMHIIE. The rating of perceived exertion was significantly higher (p < 0.001) in TMMICE compared with CEMICE which showed the most positive affective valence (p = 0.009). Enjoyment was similar across all bouts (p = 0.11). Treadmill-based HIIE leads to higher heart rate and V̇o2 vs. CEHIIE, although there was no difference in affective valence or enjoyment. Practitioners aiming to optimize the cardiorespiratory response to moderate or interval exercise in their clientele should recommend TM running rather than cycling.

Acute and long-term effects of two different static stretching training protocols on range of motion and vertical jump in preadolescent athletes.

This study examined the acute and long-term effects of two static stretching protocols of equal duration, performed either as a single stretch or multiple shorter duration repetitions on hip hyperextension range of motion (ROM) and single leg countermovement jump height (CMJ). Thirty female gymnasts were randomly assigned to stretching (SG) or control groups (CG). The SG performed two different protocols of static stretching, three times per week for 9 weeks. One leg performed repeated stretching (3 × 30 s with 30 s rest) while the other leg performed a single stretch (90 s). The CG continued regular training. ROM and CMJ were measured pre- and 2 min post-stretching on weeks 0, 3, 6, 9, and 3 weeks into detraining. CMJ height increased over time irrespective of group (main effect time, p = 0.001), with no statistical difference between groups (main effect group, p = 0.272). Three-way ANOVA showed that, CMJ height after stretching was not affected by either stretching protocol at any time point (p = 0.503 to 0.996). Both stretching protocols equally increased ROM on weeks 6 (10.9 ± 13.4%, p < 0.001, d = 0.42), and 9 (21.5 ± 13.4%, p < 0.001, d = 0.78), and this increase was maintained during detraining (17.0 ± 15.0%, p < 0.001, d = 0.68). No increase in ROM was observed in the CG (p > 0.874). Static stretching of long duration applied either as single or multiple bouts of equal duration, results in similar acute and long-term improvements in ROM. Furthermore, both stretching protocols do not acutely affect subsequent CMJ performance, and this effect is not influenced by the large increase in ROM and CMJ overtime.

Effects of Body Mass Index (BMI), demographic and socioeconomic factors on organized physical activity (OPA) participation in children aged 6-15 years: a cross-sectional study comparing primary and secondary school children in Greece.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the present study was to examine the influence of body mass index category, as well as of demographic and socioeconomic factors on the participation in organized physical activity (OPA) of schoolchildren attending primary and secondary school in Greece. Furthermore, to compare the difference between the two levels. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study conducted on a representative elementary and secondary school cohort, derived using stratification and probability proportional to size (PPS) methodology. The final sample included 18,264 subjects, aged 6 to 15 years. Parents of all students and students of secondary schools fulfilled validated questionnaires evaluating socioeconomic status, and participation to OPA. International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) cut offs were used to classify the children. Univariate and multivariate logistic models examined factors associated with OPA. All analyses were stratified by school level. RESULTS: Sport participation was not reported in 37.7 and 54.4% of primary and secondary schoolchildren respectively. Having BMI within normal range, being male, having parents participating in an organized activity and a high socio-economic status seem to encourage participation in OPA in both school levels. CONCLUSIONS: Children with normal BMI are more likely to participate in OPA. Parents as role model as well as higher socioeconomic status of the family emerge as important influencers. Participation in OPA declines as students enter secondary school. Interventions focusing on increasing physical education and activity into school daily program should be tailored to the specific needs of different weight categories and can possibly eliminate the impact of SES inequalities.

Intermittent but Not Continuous Static Stretching Improves Subsequent Vertical Jump Performance in Flexibility-Trained Athletes.

Bogdanis, GC, Donti, O, Tsolakis, C, Smilios, I, and Bishop, DJ. Intermittent but not continuous static stretching improves subsequent vertical jump performance in flexibility-trained athletes. J Strength Cond Res 33(1): 203-210, 2019-This study examined changes in countermovement jump (CMJ) height after an intermittent or a continuous static stretching protocol of equal total duration. Sixteen male, elite-level gymnasts performed 90 seconds of intermittent (3 × 30 seconds with 30 seconds rest) or continuous stretching (90 seconds) of the quadriceps muscle. A single-leg stretching and jumping design was used, with the contralateral limb serving as a control. The same individuals performed both conditions with alternate legs in a randomized, counterbalanced order. One-leg CMJ height was measured for the stretched and the control leg after warm-up, immediately after stretching, and at regular intervals for 10 minutes after stretching. Range of motion (ROM) of the hip and knee joints was measured before, after, and 10 minutes poststretching. Compared with the control leg, intermittent stretching increased CMJ height by 8.1 ± 2.0%, 4 minutes into recovery (2.2 ± 2.0 cm, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.0-3.4 cm, p = 0.001), whereas continuous stretching decreased CMJ height by 17.5 ± 3.3% immediately after (-2.9 ± 1.7 cm, 95% CI: -2.0 to -3.7 cm, p = 0.001) and by 12.0 ± 2.7% 1 minute after stretching (-2.2 ± 2.1 cm, 95% CI: -1.2 to -3.2 cm, p = 0.001). The increases in hip (2.9 and 3.6°, p = 0.001. d = 2.4) and knee joint ROM (5.1 and 6.1°, p = 0.001. d = 0.85) after the intermittent and continuous stretching protocols were not different. The opposite effects of intermittent vs. continuous stretching on subsequent CMJ performance suggests that stretching mode is an important variable when examining the acute effects of static stretching on performance in flexibility-trained athletes.