Neutrophils in ulcerative colitis: a review of selected biomarkers and their potential therapeutic implications.

OBJECTIVES: This review article describes the role of neutrophils in mucosal injury and the resulting crypt abscesses characteristic of ulcerative colitis. We also review selected biomarkers for monitoring neutrophil presence and activity in the mucosa as well as their potential as therapeutic targets. MATERIAL: We have collated and selectively reviewed data on the most prominent well-established and emerging neutrophil-related biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets (calprotectin, lactoferrin, CXCR1, CXCR2, MMP-9, NGAL, elafin, HNE, pANCAs, MPO, CD16, CD177, CD64, HNPs, SLPI and PTX3) in ulcerative colitis. RESULTS: Systemic and intestinal neutrophil activity increases substantially in active ulcerative colitis, driving tissue damage and extra-intestinal manifestations. Calprotectin is a robust neutrophil and disease biomarker, and a few neutrophil-related targets are being clinically explored as therapeutic targets. CONCLUSION: We propose that targeting neutrophils and their inflammatory mediators per se is an opportunity that should be explored to identify new effective medical therapies. The overall clinical goal for neutrophil-targeted therapy will be to modulate, but not completely silence, neutrophil activity, thereby abolishing the destructive inflammation with associated acute and chronic tissue damage without compromising host-defense.

Activation of ß3-adrenoceptors increases in vivo free fatty acid uptake and utilization in brown but not white fat depots in high-fat-fed rats.

Activation of brown adipose tissue (BAT) and browning of white adipose tissue (WAT) present potential new therapies for obesity and type 2 diabetes. Here, we examined the effects of ß3-adrenergic stimulation on tissue-specific uptake and storage of free fatty acids (FFA) and its implications for whole body FFA metabolism in diet-induced obese rats using a multi-radiotracer technique. Male Wistar rats were high fat-fed for 12 wk and administered ß3-agonist CL316,243 (CL, 1 mg·kg-1·day-1) or saline via osmotic minipumps during the last 3 wk. The rats were then fasted and acutely infused with a tracer mixture ([14C]palmitate and the partially metabolized R-[3H]bromopalmitate) under anesthesia. CL infusion decreased body weight gain and fasting plasma glucose levels. While core body temperature was unaffected, infrared thermography showed an increase in tail heat dissipation following CL infusion. Interestingly, CL markedly increased both FFA storage and utilization in interscapular and perirenal BAT, whereas the flux of FFA to skeletal muscle was decreased. In this rat model of obesity, only sporadic populations of beige adipocytes were detected in the epididymal WAT depot of CL-infused rats, and there was no change in FFA uptake or utilization in WAT following CL infusion. In summary, ß3-agonism robustly increased FFA flux to BAT coupled with enhanced utilization. Increased BAT activation most likely drove the increased tail heat dissipation to maintain thermostasis. Our results emphasize the quantitative role of brown fat as the functional target of ß3-agonism in obesity.

In vivo imaging of lipid storage and regression in diet-induced obesity during nutrition manipulation.

Changes in adipose tissue distribution and ectopic fat storage in, liver and skeletal muscle tissue impact whole body insulin sensitivity in both humans and experimental animals. Numerous mouse models of obesity, insulin resistance, and diabetes exist; however, current methods to assess mouse phenotypes commonly involve direct harvesting of the tissues of interest, precluding the possibility of repeated measurements in the same animal. In this study, we demonstrate that whole body 3-D imaging of body fat composition can be used to analyze distribution as well as redistribution of fat after intervention by repeated assessment of intrahepatocellular lipids (IHCL), intra-abdominal, subcutaneous, and total adipose tissue (IAT, SAT, and TAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). C57BL/6J mice fed a cafeteria diet for 16 wk were compared with mice fed standard chow for 16 wk and mice switched from café diet to standard chow after 12 wk. MRI determinations were made at 9 and 15 wk, and autopsy was performed at 16 wk. There was a strong correlation between MRI-calculated weights in vivo at 15 wk and measured weights at 16 wk ex vivo for IAT (r = 0.99), BAT (r = 0.93), and IHCL (r = 0.97). IHCL and plasma insulin increased steeply relative to body weight at body weights above 45 g. This study demonstrates that the use of 3-D imaging to assess body fat composition may allow substantial reductions in animal usage. The dietary interventions indicated that a marked metabolic deterioration occurred when the mice had gained a certain fat mass.

3-Hydroxyanthralinic acid metabolism controls the hepatic SREBP/lipoprotein axis, inhibits inflammasome activation in macrophages, and decreases atherosclerosis in Ldlr-/- mice.

AIMS: Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease involving immunological and metabolic processes. Metabolism of tryptophan (Trp) via the kynurenine pathway has shown immunomodulatory properties and the ability to modulate atherosclerosis. We identified 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3-HAA) as a key metabolite of Trp modulating vascular inflammation and lipid metabolism. The molecular mechanisms driven by 3-HAA in atherosclerosis have not been completely elucidated. In this study, we investigated whether two major signalling pathways, activation of SREBPs and inflammasome, are associated with the 3-HAA-dependent regulation of lipoprotein synthesis and inflammation in the atherogenesis process. Moreover, we examined whether inhibition of endogenous 3-HAA degradation affects hyperlipidaemia and plaque formation. METHODS AND RESULTS: In vitro, we showed that 3-HAA reduces SREBP-2 expression and nuclear translocation and apolipoprotein B secretion in HepG2 cell cultures, and inhibits inflammasome activation and IL-1ß production by macrophages. Using Ldlr-/- mice, we showed that inhibition of 3-HAA 3,4-dioxygenase (HAAO), which increases the endogenous levels of 3-HAA, decreases plasma lipids and atherosclerosis. Notably, HAAO inhibition led to decreased hepatic SREBP-2 mRNA levels and lipid accumulation, and improved liver pathology scores. CONCLUSIONS: We show that the activity of SREBP-2 and the inflammasome can be regulated by 3-HAA metabolism. Moreover, our study highlights that targeting HAAO is a promising strategy to prevent and treat hypercholesterolaemia and atherosclerosis.

Pnpla3 silencing with antisense oligonucleotides ameliorates nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and fibrosis in Pnpla3 I148M knock-in mice.

OBJECTIVE: Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is becoming a leading cause of advanced chronic liver disease. The progression of NAFLD, including nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), has a strong genetic component, and the most robust contributor is the patatin-like phospholipase domain-containing 3 (PNPLA3) rs738409 encoding the 148M protein sequence variant. We hypothesized that suppressing the expression of the PNPLA3 148M mutant protein would exert a beneficial effect on the entire spectrum of NAFLD. METHODS: We examined the effects of liver-targeted GalNAc3-conjugated antisense oligonucleotide (ASO)-mediated silencing of Pnpla3 in a knock-in mouse model in which we introduced the human PNPLA3 I148M mutation. RESULTS: ASO-mediated silencing of Pnpla3 reduced liver steatosis (p = 0.038) in homozygous Pnpla3 148M/M knock-in mutant mice but not in wild-type littermates fed a steatogenic high-sucrose diet. In mice fed a NASH-inducing diet, ASO-mediated silencing of Pnpla3 reduced liver steatosis score and NAFLD activity score independent of the Pnpla3 genotype, while reductions in liver inflammation score (p = 0.018) and fibrosis stage (p = 0.031) were observed only in the Pnpla3 knock-in 148M/M mutant mice. These responses were accompanied by reduced liver levels of Mcp1 (p = 0.026) and Timp2 (p = 0.007) specifically in the mutant knock-in mice. This may reduce levels of chemokine attracting inflammatory cells and increase the collagenolytic activity during tissue regeneration. CONCLUSION: This study provides the first evidence that a Pnpla3 ASO therapy can improve all features of NAFLD, including liver fibrosis, and suppress the expression of a strong innate genetic risk factor, Pnpla3 148M, which may open up a precision medicine approach in NASH.

Early stellate cell activation and veno-occlusive-disease (VOD)-like hepatotoxicity in dogs treated with AR-H047108, an imidazopyridine proton pump inhibitor.

Dogs treated with AR-H047108, an imidazopyridine potassium competitive acid blocker (P-CAB), developed clinical signs of hepatic dysfunction as well as morphologically manifest hepatotoxicity in repeat-dose toxicity studies. An investigative one-month study was performed, with interim euthanasia after one and two weeks. A detailed histopathological and immunohistochemical characterization of the liver lesions was conducted, including markers for fibrosis, Kupffer cell activation, apoptosis, and endothelial injury. In addition, hepatic retinoid and procollagen 1alpha2 mRNA levels in livers of dogs treated with AR-H047108 were analyzed. The results showed an early inflammatory process in central veins and centrilobular areas, present after one week of treatment. This inflammatory reaction was paralleled by activation of stellate/Ito cells to myofibroblasts and was associated with sinusoidal and centrivenular fibrosis. The early activation of stellate cells coincided with a significant decrease in retinyl ester levels, and a significant increase in procollagen 1alpha2 mRNA levels, in the liver. At later time points (three and six months), there was marked sinusoidal fibrosis in centrilobular areas, as well as occlusion of central veins resulting from a combination of fibrosis and increased thickness of smooth muscle bundles in the vessel wall. The pattern of lesions suggests a veno-occlusive-disease (VOD)-like scenario, possibly linked to the imidazopyridine chemical structure of the compound facilitated by specific morphological features of the dog liver.

Involvement of the metabolic sensor GPR81 in cardiovascular control.

GPR81 is a receptor for the metabolic intermediate lactate with an established role in regulating adipocyte lipolysis. Potentially novel GPR81 agonists were identified that suppressed fasting plasma free fatty acid levels in rodents and in addition improved insulin sensitivity in mouse models of insulin resistance and diabetes. Unexpectedly, the agonists simultaneously induced hypertension in rodents, including wild-type, but not GPR81-deficient mice. Detailed cardiovascular studies in anesthetized dogs showed that the pressor effect was associated with heterogenous effects on vascular resistance among the measured tissues: increasing in the kidney while remaining unchanged in hindlimb and heart. Studies in rats revealed that the pressor effect could be blocked, and the renal resistance effect at least partially blocked, with pharmacological antagonism of endothelin receptors. In situ hybridization localized GPR81 to the microcirculation, notably afferent arterioles of the kidney. In conclusion, these results provide evidence for a potentially novel role of GPR81 agonism in blood pressure control and regulation of renal vascular resistance including modulation of a known vasoeffector mechanism, the endothelin system. In addition, support is provided for the concept of fatty acid lowering as a means of improving insulin sensitivity.

The effects of dual PPARα/γ agonism compared with ACE inhibition in the BTBRob/ob mouse model of diabetes and diabetic nephropathy.

The leptin-deficient BTBRob/ob mouse develops progressive albuminuria and morphological lesions similar to human diabetic nephropathy (DN), although whether glomerular hyperfiltration, a recognized feature of early DN that may contribute to renal injury, also occurs in this model is not known. Leptin replacement has been shown to reverse the signs of renal injury in this model, but in contrast, the expected renoprotection by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition in BTBRob/ob mice seems to be limited. Therefore, to investigate the potential renal benefits of improved metabolic control in this model, we studied the effect of treatment with the dual peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) α/γ agonist AZD6610 and compared it with the ACE inhibitor enalapril. AZD6610 lowered plasma glucose and triglyceride concentrations and increased liver size, but had no significant effect in reducing albuminuria, whereas enalapril did have an effect. Nephrin and WT1 mRNA expression decreased in the kidneys of BTBRob/ob mice, consistent with podocyte injury and loss, but was unaffected by either drug treatment: at the protein level, both nephrin and WT1-positive cells per glomerulus were decreased. Mesangial matrix expansion was reduced in AZD6610-treated mice. GFR, measured by creatinine clearance, was increased in BTBRob/ob mice, but unaffected by either treatment. Unexpectedly, enalapril-treated mice showed intrarenal arteriolar vascular remodeling with concentric thickening of vessel walls. In summary, we found that the BTBRob/ob mouse model shows some similarities to the early changes seen in human DN, but that ACE inhibition or PPARα/γ agonism afforded limited or no kidney protection.

Claudin-2 Expression Levels in Ulcerative Colitis: Development and Validation of an In-Situ Hybridisation Assay for Therapeutic Studies.

Ulcerative colitis is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting the colon and is characterized by epithelial damage and barrier dysfunction. Upregulation of the tight junction protein claudin-2 by cytokines is hypothesized to contribute to the dysregulation of the epithelial barrier. New therapeutic agents which block the action of cytokines are being investigated in patients with ulcerative colitis. In order to understand the potential of these therapies, it is important to have reliable assays that can assess downstream endpoints that reflect drug mechanism of action. The aim of the current study was therefore to establish & validate an assay to reproducibly assess the expression and distribution of claudin-2 in human colon biopsy samples. Initially, the potential to measure claudin-2 protein by immunohistochemistry (IHC) was investigated. To identify suitable reagents to develop an IHC assay, pre-established criteria were used to screen five commercial antibodies by Western blotting, immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry on claudin-2 positive and negative cells and healthy and ulcerative colitis colon tissue. Despite some of these antibodies specifically detecting claudin-2 using some of these techniques, none of the antibodies showed the expected specific staining pattern in formalin fixed human colon samples. As an alternative method to detect claudin-2 expression and distribution in formalin fixed biopsy sections, an in situ hybridization assay was developed. This assay underwent a novel tiered approach of validation to establish that it was fit-for-purpose, and suitable for clinical deployment. In addition, to understand the possible relationship of claudin-2 in the context of disease severity, expression was compared to the Geboes score. Overall, the microscopical Geboes score correlated with the claudin-2 biomarker score for samples that retained crypt morphology; samples with the highest Geboes score were not specifically distinguished, probably due to crypt destruction. In summary, we have applied a strategy for identifying target-specific antibodies in formalin fixed biopsy samples and highlighted that (published) antibodies may not correctly identify the intended antigen in tissues fixed using this method. Furthermore, we have developed and, for the first time, validated an in situ hybridization assay for detection of claudin-2 mRNA, suitable for use as a supportative method in clinical trials. Using our validated assay, we have demonstrated that increased claudin-2 expression correlates with the severity of ulcerative colitis, where crypt destruction is not seen.

The beneficial effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on diet induced obesity and impaired glucose control do not require Gpr120.

GPR120 (Ffar4) has been postulated to represent an important receptor mediating the improved metabolic profile seen upon ingestion of a diet enriched in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). GPR120 is highly expressed in the digestive system, adipose tissue, lung and macrophages and also present in the endocrine pancreas. A new Gpr120 deficient mouse model on pure C57bl/6N background was developed to investigate the importance of the receptor for long-term feeding with a diet enriched with fish oil. Male Gpr120 deficient mice were fed two different high fat diets (HFDs) for 18 weeks. The diets contained lipids that were mainly saturated (SAT) or mainly n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Body composition, as well as glucose, lipid and energy metabolism, was studied. As expected, wild type mice fed the PUFA HFD gained less body weight and had lower body fat mass, hepatic lipid levels, plasma cholesterol and insulin levels and better glucose tolerance as compared to those fed the SAT HFD. Gpr120 deficient mice showed a similar improvement on the PUFA HFD as was observed for wild type mice. If anything, the Gpr120 deficient mice responded better to the PUFA HFD as compared to wild type mice with respect to liver fat content, plasma glucose levels and islet morphology. Gpr120 deficient animals were found to have similar energy, glucose and lipid metabolism when fed HFD PUFA compared to wild type mice. Therefore, GPR120 appears to be dispensable for the improved metabolic profile associated with intake of a diet enriched in n-3 PUFA fatty acids.

Ageing Fxr deficient mice develop increased energy expenditure, improved glucose control and liver damage resembling NASH.

Nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group H, member 4 (Nr1h4, FXR) is a bile acid activated nuclear receptor mainly expressed in the liver, intestine, kidney and adrenal glands. Upon activation, the primary function is to suppress cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase (Cyp7a1), the rate-limiting enzyme in the classic or neutral bile acid synthesis pathway. In the present study, a novel Fxr deficient mouse line was created and studied with respect to metabolism and liver function in ageing mice fed chow diet. The Fxr deficient mice were similar to wild type mice in terms of body weight, body composition, energy intake and expenditure as well as behaviours at a young age. However, from 15 weeks of age and onwards, the Fxr deficient mice had almost no body weight increase up to 39 weeks of age mainly because of lower body fat mass. The lower body weight gain was associated with increased energy expenditure that was not compensated by increased food intake. Fasting levels of glucose and insulin were lower and glucose tolerance was improved in old and lean Fxr deficient mice. However, the Fxr deficient mice displayed significantly increased liver weight, steatosis, hepatocyte ballooning degeneration and lobular inflammation together with elevated plasma levels of ALT, bilirubin and bile acids, findings compatible with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and cholestasis. In conclusion, ageing Fxr deficient mice display late onset leanness associated with elevated energy expenditure and improved glucose control but develop severe NASH-like liver pathology.

Adiponectin receptor 2 deficiency results in reduced atherosclerosis in the brachiocephalic artery in apolipoprotein E deficient mice.

Adiponectin has been shown to have beneficial cardiovascular effects and to signal through the adiponectin receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2. The original aim of this study was to investigate the effect of combined AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 deficiency (AdipoR1(-/-)AdipoR2(-/-)) on atherosclerosis. However, we made the interesting observation that AdipoR1(-/-) AdipoR2(-/-) leads to embryonic lethality demonstrating the critical importance of the adiponectin signalling system during development. We then investigated the effect of AdipoR2-ablation on the progression of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E deficient (ApoE(-/-)) mice. AdipoR2(-/-)ApoE(-/-) mice fed an atherogenic diet had decreased plaque area in the brachiocephalic artery compared with AdipoR2(+/+) ApoE(-/-) littermate controls as visualized in vivo using an ultrasound biomicroscope and confirmed by histological analyses. The decreased plaque area in the brachiocephalic artery could not be explained by plasma cholesterol levels or inflammatory status. However, accumulation of neutral lipids was decreased in peritoneal macrophages from AdipoR2(-/-)ApoE(-/-) mice after incubation with oxidized LDL. This effect was associated with lower CD36 and higher ABCA1 mRNA levels in peritoneal macrophages from AdipoR2(-/-)ApoE(-/-) mice compared with AdipoR2(+/+)ApoE(-/-) controls after incubation with oxidized LDL. In summary, we show that adiponectin receptors are crucial during embryonic development and that AdipoR2-deficiency slows down the progression of atherosclerosis in the brachiocephalic artery of ApoE-deficient mice.