Shared genetic risk between major orofacial cleft phenotypes in an African population.

Nonsyndromic orofacial clefts (NSOFCs) represent a large proportion (70%-80%) of all OFCs. They can be broadly categorized into nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate (NSCL/P) and nonsyndromic cleft palate only (NSCPO). Although NSCL/P and NSCPO are considered etiologically distinct, recent evidence suggests the presence of shared genetic risks. Thus, we investigated the genetic overlap between NSCL/P and NSCPO using African genome-wide association study (GWAS) data on NSOFCs. These data consist of 814 NSCL/P, 205 NSCPO cases, and 2159 unrelated controls. We generated common single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) association summary statistics separately for each phenotype (NSCL/P and NSCPO) under an additive genetic model. Subsequently, we employed the pleiotropic analysis under the composite null (PLACO) method to test for genetic overlap. Our analysis identified two loci with genome-wide significance (rs181737795 [p = 2.58E-08] and rs2221169 [p = 4.5E-08]) and one locus with marginal significance (rs187523265 [p = 5.22E-08]). Using mouse transcriptomics data and information from genetic phenotype databases, we identified MDN1, MAP3k7, KMT2A, ARCN1, and VADC2 as top candidate genes for the associated SNVs. These findings enhance our understanding of genetic variants associated with NSOFCs and identify potential candidate genes for further exploration.

Perceptions and beliefs of community gatekeepers about genomic risk information in African cleft research.

BACKGROUND: A fundamental ethical issue in African genomics research is how socio-cultural factors impact perspectives, acceptance, and utility of genomic information, especially in stigmatizing conditions like orofacial clefts (OFCs). Previous research has shown that gatekeepers (e.g., religious, political, family or community leaders) wield considerable influence on the decision-making capabilities of their members, including health issues. Thus, their perspectives can inform the design of engagement strategies and increase exposure to the benefits of genomics testing/research. This is especially important for Africans underrepresented in genomic research. Our study aims to investigate the perspectives of gatekeepers concerning genomic risk information (GRI) in the presence of OFCs in a sub-Saharan African cohort. METHODS: Twenty-five focus group discussions (FGDs) consisting of 214 gatekeepers (religious, community, ethnic leaders, and traditional birth attendants) in Lagos, Nigeria, explored the opinions of participants on genomic risk information (GRI), OFC experience, and the possibility of involvement in collaborative decision-making in Lagos, Nigeria. Transcripts generated from audio recordings were coded and analyzed in NVivo using thematic analysis. RESULTS: Three main themes-knowledge, beliefs, and willingness to act-emerged from exploring the perspective of gatekeepers about GRI in this group. We observed mixed opinions regarding the acceptance of GRI. Many participants believed their role is to guide and support members when they receive results; this is based on the level of trust their members have in them. However, participants felt they would need to be trained by medical experts to do this. Also, religious and cultural beliefs were crucial to determining participants' understanding of OFCs and the acceptance and utilization of GRI. CONCLUSIONS: Incorporating cultural sensitivity into public engagement could help develop appropriate strategies to manage conflicting ideologies surrounding genomic information in African communities. This will allow for more widespread access to the advances in genomics research in underrepresented populations. We also recommend a synergistic relationship between community health specialists/scientists, and community leaders, including spiritual providers to better understand and utilize GRI.

Genome scan reveals several loci associated with torus palatinus.

OBJECTIVE: Torus Palatinus (TP) is a common trait with an unclear aetiology. Although prior studies suggest a hereditary component, the genetic factors that influence TP risk remain unknown. The purpose of this study is to identify genetic variants associated with TP. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We assessed the TP status of 829 individuals from various ancestral backgrounds using 3D palate scans. We then carried out a genome-wide association study (GWAS) to identify common variants associated with TP. We also performed gene-based tests across the exome to investigate the role of low-frequency coding variants. RESULTS: Our GWAS did not identify any genome-wide significant signals but identified suggestive associations including hits on chromosomes 2, 5 and 17 with p-values less than 5 × 10-6. Candidate genes at these suggestive loci have been implicated in normal-range craniofacial features, syndromes with facial and oral malformations, and bone density. We did not find evidence that low-frequency coding variants influence TP risk. In addition, we failed to replicate associations identified in prior genetic studies of TP. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that multiple genes likely influence the development of TP. Independent replication will be required to confirm our suggestive associations.

DNA Methylation Effects on Van der Woude Syndrome Phenotypic Variability.

OBJECTIVE: Van der Woude Syndrome (VWS) presents with combinations of lip pits (LP) and cleft lip and/or cleft palate (CL/P, CPO). VWS phenotypic heterogeneity even amongst relatives, suggests that epigenetic factors may act as modifiers. IRF6, causal for 70% of VWS cases, and TP63 interact in a regulatory loop coordinating epithelial proliferation and differentiation in palatogenesis. We hypothesize that differential DNA methylation within IRF6 and TP63 regulatory regions underlie VWS phenotypic discordance. METHODS: DNA methylation of CpG sites in IRF6 and TP63 promoters and in an IRF6 enhancer element was compared amongst blood or saliva DNA samples of 78 unrelated cases. Analyses were done separately for blood and saliva, within each sex and in combination, and to address cleft type (CL/P ± LP vs. CPO ± LP) and phenotypic severity (any cleft + LP vs. any cleft only). RESULTS: For cleft type, blood samples showed higher IRF6 and TP63 promoter methylation on males with CPO ± LP compared to CL/P ± LP and on individuals with CPO ± LP compared to those with CL/P ± LP, respectively. Saliva samples showed higher IRF6 enhancer methylation on individuals with CPO ± LP compared to CL/P ± LP and contrary to above, lower TP63 promoter methylation on CPO ± LP compared to CL/P ± LP. For phenotypic severity, blood samples showed no differences; however, saliva samples showed higher IRF6 promoter methylation in individuals with any cleft + LP compared to those without lip pits. CONCLUSION: We observed differential methylation in IRF6 and TP63 regulatory regions associated with cleft type and phenotypic severity, indicating that epigenetic changes in IRF6 and TP63 can contribute to phenotypic heterogeneity in VWS.

Genome-wide association study of multiethnic nonsyndromic orofacial cleft families identifies novel loci specific to family and phenotypic subtypes.

Nonsyndromic orofacial clefts (OFCs) are among the most common craniofacial birth defects worldwide, and known to exhibit phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity. Cleft lip plus cleft palate (CLP) and cleft lip only (CL) are commonly combined together as one phenotype (CL/P), separately from cleft palate alone. In comparison, our study analyzes CL and CLP separately. A sample of 2218 CL and CLP cases, 4537 unaffected relatives of cases, and 2673 pure controls with no family history of OFC were selected from the Pittsburgh Orofacial Cleft (Pitt-OFC) multiethnic study.genome-wide association studies were run for seven specific phenotypes created based on the cleft type(s) observed within these families, as well as the combined CL/P phenotype. Five novel genome-wide significant associations, 3q29 (rs62284390), 5p13.2 (rs609659), 7q22.1 (rs6465810), 19p13.3 (rs628271), and 20q13.33 (rs2427238), and nine associations (p ≤ 1.0E-05) within previously confirmed OFC loci-PAX7, IRF6, FAM49A, DCAF4L2, 8q24.21, ARID3B, NTN1, TANC2 and the WNT9B:WNT3 gene cluster-were observed. We also found that single nucleotide polymorphisms within a subset of the associated loci, both previously known and novel, differ substantially in terms of their effects across cleft- or family-specific phenotypes, indicating not only etiologic differences between CL and CLP, but also genetic heterogeneity within each of the two OFC subtypes.

A mutational hotspot in AMOTL1 defines a new syndrome of orofacial clefting, cardiac anomalies, and tall stature.

AMOTL1 encodes angiomotin-like protein 1, an actin-binding protein that regulates cell polarity, adhesion, and migration. The role of AMOTL1 in human disease is equivocal. We report a large cohort of individuals harboring heterozygous AMOTL1 variants and define a core phenotype of orofacial clefting, congenital heart disease, tall stature, auricular anomalies, and gastrointestinal manifestations in individuals with variants in AMOTL1 affecting amino acids 157-161, a functionally undefined but highly conserved region. Three individuals with AMOTL1 variants outside this region are also described who had variable presentations with orofacial clefting and multi-organ disease. Our case cohort suggests that heterozygous missense variants in AMOTL1, most commonly affecting amino acid residues 157-161, define a new orofacial clefting syndrome, and indicates an important functional role for this undefined region.

Whole Exome Sequencing Identifies Damaging Variants in Indonesians with Clefts.

OBJECTIVES: The interaction between genomics, genetic and environmental factors have been implicated in non-syndromic orofacial cleft development. In the current study, we investigated the contributions of rare and novel genetic variants in known cleft genes using whole exome sequencing (WES) data of Indonesians with non-syndromic orofacial clefts. DESIGN: WES was conducted on 6 individuals. Variants in their exons were called and annotated. These variants were filtered for novelty and rarity using MAF of 0 and 1%. SETTING: Hospital in Indonesia. PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS: Indonesians with non-syndromic orofacial clefts. INTERVENTIONS: Deleterious variants were prioritized. Pathogenic amino acid changes effect on protein structure and function were identified using HOPE. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Rare and novel variants in known cleft genes were filtered and their deleteriousness were predicted using polyphen, SIFT and CADD. RESULTS: We identified rare (MAF <1%) deleterious variants in 4 craniofacial genes namely MMACHC (rs371937044, MAF = 0.00011). SOS1 (rs190222208, MAF = 0.00045), TULP4 (rs199583035, MAF = 0.067), and MTHFD1L (rs143492706, MAF = 0.0044). MMACHC has a mouse knockout model with facial cleft and failure of palatal fusion. The individual with variant in MMACHC presented with nsCPO. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provides additional evidence for the role of TULP4, SOS1, MTHFD1L and MMACHC genes in nsOFC development. This is the first time MMACHC is implicated in nsOFC development in humans.

SPECC1L regulates palate development downstream of IRF6.

SPECC1L mutations have been identified in patients with rare atypical orofacial clefts and with syndromic cleft lip and/or palate (CL/P). These mutations cluster in the second coiled-coil and calponin homology domains of SPECC1L and severely affect the ability of SPECC1L to associate with microtubules. We previously showed that gene-trap knockout of Specc1l in mouse results in early embryonic lethality. We now present a truncation mutant mouse allele, Specc1lΔC510, that results in perinatal lethality. Specc1lΔC510/ΔC510 homozygotes showed abnormal palate rugae but did not show cleft palate. However, when crossed with a gene-trap allele, Specc1lcGT/ΔC510 compound heterozygotes showed a palate elevation delay with incompletely penetrant cleft palate. Specc1lcGT/ΔC510 embryos exhibit transient oral epithelial adhesions at E13.5, which may delay shelf elevation. Consistent with oral adhesions, we show periderm layer abnormalities, including ectopic apical expression of adherens junction markers, similar to Irf6 hypomorphic mutants and Arhgap29 heterozygotes. Indeed, SPECC1L expression is drastically reduced in Irf6 mutant palatal shelves. Finally, we wanted to determine if SPECC1L deficiency also contributed to non-syndromic (ns) CL/P. We sequenced 62 Caucasian, 89 Filipino, 90 Ethiopian, 90 Nigerian and 95 Japanese patients with nsCL/P and identified three rare coding variants (p.Ala86Thr, p.Met91Iso and p.Arg546Gln) in six individuals. These variants reside outside of SPECC1L coiled-coil domains and result in milder functional defects than variants associated with syndromic clefting. Together, our data indicate that palate elevation is sensitive to deficiency of SPECC1L dosage and function and that SPECC1L cytoskeletal protein functions downstream of IRF6 in palatogenesis.

Genetic and epigenetic studies in non-syndromic oral clefts.

The etiology of non-syndromic oral clefts (NSOFC) is complex with genetics, genomics, epigenetics, and stochastics factors playing a role. Several approaches have been applied to understand the etiology of non-syndromic oral clefts. These include linkage, candidate gene association studies, genome-wide association studies, whole-genome sequencing, copy number variations, and epigenetics. In this review, we shared these approaches, genes, and loci reported in some studies.

Variant analyses of candidate genes in orofacial clefts in multi-ethnic populations.

OBJECTIVES: Cleft lip with/without cleft palate and cleft palate only is congenital birth defects where the upper lip and/or palate fail to fuse properly during embryonic facial development. Affecting ~1.2/1000 live births worldwide, these orofacial clefts impose significant social and financial burdens on affected individuals and their families. Orofacial clefts have a complex etiology resulting from genetic variants combined with environmental covariates. Recent genome-wide association studies and whole-exome sequencing for orofacial clefts identified significant genetic associations and variants in several genes. Of these, we investigated the role of common/rare variants in SHH, RORA, MRPL53, ACVR1, and GDF11. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We sequenced these five genes in 1255 multi-ethnic cleft lip with/without palate and cleft palate only samples in order to find variants that may provide potential explanations for the missing heritability of orofacial clefts. Rare and novel variants were further analyzed using in silico predictive tools. RESULTS: Ninteen total variants of interest were found, with variant types including stop-gain, missense, synonymous, intronic, and splice-site variants. Of these, 3 novel missense variants were found, one in SHH, one in RORA, and one in GDF11. CONCLUSION: This study provides evidence that variants in SHH, RORA, MRPL53, ACVR1, and GDF11 may contribute to risk of orofacial clefts in various populations.

Mutations in Van Der Woude Families From Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Van der Woude syndrome (VWS) is the most common syndromic orofacial cleft which accounts for approximately 2% of all cleft lip (CL) and/or palate cases. It is characterized by the presence of lower lip pits, in addition to CL, CL with or without cleft palate, cleft palate only, and hypodontia. It is inherited as an autosomal-dominant trait with almost complete penetrance but variable expressivity, and different variants in IRF6 gene have been reported in different populations around the world including African populations (Ethiopian, Ghanaian, and Nigerian). METHODS AND FINDINGS: The authors investigated the role of IRF6 in Ethiopian families with VWS. The DNA of 7 families with VWS from Ethiopia were screened by Sanger sequencing. The authors screened all 9 exons of IRF6 and found a novel missense variant in exon 4 (p. Gly65Glu). This variant was predicted to be deleterious/probably damaging by Sift and PolyPhen, respectively. The IRF6 variant (p. Gly65Glu) segregates in the family since it was identified in the father and a sibling. CONCLUSION: Several of the individuals with lower lip pits in this study did not seek treatment. This is due to lack of awareness about the significance of this minor looking deformity and its consequences, and availability of treatment for birth defects. Therefore, it is important to educate families. Finally, screening for novel variants in known genes has a role in counseling and prenatal diagnosis for high-risk families.

Facial Anthropometry Measurements Using Three-Dimensional Stereophotogrammetry Analysis Among Nigerians.

ABSTRACT: This study aimed to determine the normative facial anthropometry measurement among Nigerians using three-dimensional stereophotogrammetry analysis.This study was carried out in Lagos, Nigeria over a period of 3 years. The sample population was Nigerians of diverse ethnic groups, age 16 and above with no history of congenital or acquired craniofacial deformities.A total of 452 subjects participated in the study with 56.2% males and 43.8% females. Most of the participants were between the ages of 25 to 49 (54.4%), 40.7% were less than 25 years of age and only 4.4% were more than 50 years old. The mean body mass index (BMI) for males was 22.7 and 23.4 for females. Mean values of upper facial height, midfacial height, lower facial height, intercanthal distance, interpupillary distance, upper facial width, and lower facial width are 69.13 ±â€Š5.91, 49.89 ±â€Š3.56, 67.85 ±â€Š6.12, 35.19 ±â€Š3.20, 67.04 ±â€Š3.67, 139.43 ±â€Š7.11, and 124.29 ±â€Š9.72 mm, respectively. The upper facial height, commissure width, upper lip length, and lower jaw width were significantly affected by age, while the BMI of an individual was a determinant of the interpupillary distance, facial width, and lower jaw width.This study demonstrated that there was a statistically significant difference in the facial dimensions of males when compared to females across all ages among the study population. The authors also observed that age and BMI are significant predictors of variations in some of the measurements.

Novel GRHL3 Variants in a South African Cohort With Cleft Lip and Palate.

OBJECTIVE: The etiology of cleft palate (CP) is poorly understood compared with that of cleft lip with or without palate (CL ± P). Recently, variants in Grainyhead like transcription factor 3 (GRHL3) were reported to be associated with a risk for CP in European and some African populations including Nigeria, Ghana, and Ethiopia. In order to identify genetic variants that may further explain the etiology of CP, we sequenced GRHL3 in a South African population to determine if rare variants in GRHL3 are associated with the presence of syndromic or nonsyndromic CP. DESIGN: We sequenced the exons of GRHL3 in 100 cases and where possible, we sequenced the parents of the individuals to determine the segregation pattern and presence of de novo variants. SETTING: The cleft clinics from 2 public, tertiary hospitals in Durban, South Africa (SA), namely Inkosi Albert Luthuli Central Hospital and KwaZulu-Natal Children's Hospital. PATIENTS, PARTICIPANTS: One hundred patients with CL ± P and their parents. INTERVENTIONS: Saliva samples were collected. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: To ascertain the genetic variants in the GRHL3 gene in patients with CL ± P in SA. RESULTS: Five variants in GRHL3 were observed; 3 were novel and 2 were known variants. The novel variants were intronic variants (c.1062 + 77A>G and c.627 + 1G>A) and missense variant (p.Asp169Gly). CONCLUSIONS: This study provides further evidence that variants in GRHL3 contribute to the risk of nonsyndromic CP in African populations, specifically, in the South African population.

Genome-Wide Scan for Parent-of-Origin Effects in a sub-Saharan African Cohort With Nonsyndromic Cleft Lip and/or Cleft Palate (CL/P).

OBJECTIVE: Nonsyndromic cleft lip and/or cleft palate (NSCL/P) have multifactorial etiology where genetic factors, gene-environment interactions, stochastic factors, gene-gene interactions, and parent-of-origin effects (POEs) play cardinal roles. POEs arise when the parental origin of alleles differentially impacts the phenotype of the offspring. The aim of this study was to identify POEs that can increase risk for NSCL/P in humans using a genome-wide dataset. METHODS: The samples (174 case-parent trios from Ghana, Ethiopia, and Nigeria) included in this study were from the African only genome wide association studies (GWAS) that was published in 2019. Genotyping of individual DNA using over 2 million multiethnic and African ancestry-specific single-nucleotide polymorphisms from the Illumina Multi-Ethnic Genotyping Array v2 15070954 A2 (genome build GRCh37/hg19) was done at the Center for Inherited Diseases Research. After quality control checks, PLINK was employed to carry out POE analysis employing the pooled subphenotypes of NSCL/P. RESULTS: We observed possible hints of POEs at a cluster of genes at a 1 mega base pair window at the major histocompatibility complex class 1 locus on chromosome 6, as well as at other loci encompassing candidate genes such as ASB18, ANKEF1, AGAP1, GABRD, HHAT, CCT7, DNMT3A, EPHA7, FOXO3, lncRNAs, microRNA, antisense RNAs, ZNRD1, ZFAT, and ZBTB16. CONCLUSION: Findings from our study suggest that some loci may increase the risk for NSCL/P through POEs. Additional studies are required to confirm these suggestive loci in NSCL/P etiology.

Damaging Mutations in AFDN Contribute to Risk of Nonsyndromic Cleft Lip With or Without Cleft Palate.

Novel or rare damaging mutations have been implicated in the developmental pathogenesis of nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate (nsCL ± P). Thus, we investigated the human genome for high-impact mutations that could explain the risk of nsCL ± P in our cohorts.We conducted next-generation sequencing (NGS) analysis of 130 nsCL ± P case-parent African trios to identify pathogenic variants that contribute to the risk of clefting. We replicated this analysis using whole-exome sequence data from a Brazilian nsCL ± P cohort. Computational analyses were then used to predict the mechanism by which these variants could result in increased risks for nsCL ± P.We discovered damaging mutations within the AFDN gene, a cell adhesion molecule (CAMs) that was previously shown to contribute to cleft palate in mice. These mutations include p.Met1164Ile, p.Thr453Asn, p.Pro1638Ala, p.Arg669Gln, p.Ala1717Val, and p.Arg1596His. We also discovered a novel splicing p.Leu1588Leu mutation in this protein. Computational analysis suggests that these amino acid changes affect the interactions with other cleft-associated genes including nectins (PVRL1, PVRL2, PVRL3, and PVRL4) CDH1, CTNNA1, and CTNND1.This is the first report on the contribution of AFDN to the risk for nsCL ± P in humans. AFDN encodes AFADIN, an important CAM that forms calcium-independent complexes with nectins 1 and 4 (encoded by the genes PVRL1 and PVRL4). This discovery shows the power of NGS analysis of multiethnic cleft samples in combination with a computational approach in the understanding of the pathogenesis of nsCL ± P.

Six2 regulates Pax9 expression, palatogenesis and craniofacial bone formation.

In this study, we investigated the role of the transcription factor Six2 in palate development. Six2 was selected using the SysFACE tool to predict genes from the 2p21 locus, a region associated with clefting in humans by GWAS, that are likely to be involved in palatogenesis. We functionally validated the predicted role of Six2 in palatogenesis by showing that 22% of Six2 null embryos develop cleft palate. Six2 contributes to palatogenesis by promoting mesenchymal cell proliferation and regulating bone formation. The clefting phenotype in Six2-/- embryos is similar to Pax9 null embryos, so we examined the functional relationship of these two genes. Mechanistically, SIX2 binds to a PAX9 5' upstream regulatory element and activates PAX9 expression. In addition, we identified a human SIX2 coding variant (p.Gly264Glu) in a proband with cleft palate. We show this missense mutation affects the stability of the SIX2 protein and leads to decreased PAX9 expression. The low penetrance of clefting in the Six2 null mouse combined with the mutation in one patient with cleft palate underscores the potential combinatorial interactions of other genes in clefting. Our study demonstrates that Six2 interacts with the developmental gene regulatory network in the developing palate.

Genomic analyses in African populations identify novel risk loci for cleft palate.

Orofacial clefts are common developmental disorders that pose significant clinical, economical and psychological problems. We conducted genome-wide association analyses for cleft palate only (CPO) and cleft lip with or without palate (CL/P) with ~17 million markers in sub-Saharan Africans. After replication and combined analyses, we identified novel loci for CPO at or near genome-wide significance on chromosomes 2 (near CTNNA2) and 19 (near SULT2A1). In situ hybridization of Sult2a1 in mice showed expression of SULT2A1 in mesenchymal cells in palate, palatal rugae and palatal epithelium in the fused palate. The previously reported 8q24 was the most significant locus for CL/P in our study, and we replicated several previously reported loci including PAX7 and VAX1.

Missense Variants Within GJB2 Gene Locus and the Risk of Hearing Defects in Nonsyndromic Cleft Lip and Palate.

AIM: The aim of the study was to investigate the role of variants in GJB2 gene in the etiology of hearing defects in nonsyndromic cleft lip/palate. METHOD: Saliva samples were obtained from cases (subjects with orofacial clefts) and control (subjects without orofacial clefts) who consented to the study. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted using standardized protocol at Butali Lab (Iowa, IA). Primers for the coding region of GJB2 was designed using Primer 3 (http://bioinfo.ut.ee/primer3-0.4.0/) and optimized in the Butali lab using a gradient polymerase chain reaction to determine the annealing temperature for each primer set (forward and reverse). We measured the DNA concentration using Qubit and XY genotyping done for quality control. A concentration of 5 ng/µL of DNA was used for Sanger sequencing. RESULTS: A total of 150 subjects were sequenced (66 cases; 84 controls). Mutations in GJB2 gene were detected in 2 individuals with cleft palate. We found p.Arg165Trp variant in 1 case and p.Leu81Val variant in the second case. Although p.Arg165Trp was predicted to be either benign or tolerated by SIFT/POLYPHEN, the single nucleotide change from C>T, that is, CGG>TGG leads to a premature stop codon preventing the protein formation. The p.Leu81Val variant was predicted to be probably damaging/ deleterious. CONCLUSIONS: The present study implicates variants in the GJB2 gene in the etiology of hearing defects in nonsyndromic cleft lip and palate in the Nigerian population. Screening for variations in GJB2 gene is important for genetic counseling especially in high-risk families.

The Influence of Sex and Ancestry on Three-Dimensional Palate Shape.

ABSTRACT: Modern human palate shape has been reported to vary by sex and ancestry, but limitations in the methods used to quantify shape and in population coverage have led to inconsistent findings. In the present study, the authors aim to characterize the effects of sex and ancestry on normal-range three-dimensional palate shape through landmark-based morphometrics.Three-dimensional digital dental casts were obtained and landmarked from 794 adults of European (n = 429), African (n = 295), and East Asian (n = 70) ancestry. Principal component analysis was conducted to identify patterns of shape variation present in our cohort, and canonical variates analysis was performed to test for shape differences between sexes and ancestries.Principal component analysis showed that 3 principal components, explaining 76.52% of variance, linked higher palatal vault with either a relative reduction in anteroposterior or mediolateral dimensions. Canonical variates analysis showed that males had wider and shorter palates with more posteriorly located maximum vault depth than females. Individuals of African ancestry, having higher vaults with more posteriorly located maximal depths, also had wider and shorter palates, whereas individuals of European ancestry had narrower and longer palates with more anteriorly located maximum vault depths. Individuals of East Asian ancestry showed the shallowest vaults.It was found that both sex and ancestry influence palate shape, suggesting a possible genetic component underlying this variation. Additionally, our findings indicate that vault height tends to co-vary with anteroposterior or mediolateral dimensions. Further investigation of these morphological patterns may shed light on possible links to common congenital anomalies such as orofacial clefting.

Parents of Children With Nonsyndromic Orofacial Clefting Show Altered Palate Shape.

OBJECTIVE: The unaffected relatives of individuals with nonsyndromic orofacial clefts have been shown to exhibit subtle craniofacial differences compared with the general population. Here, we investigate whether these morphological differences extend to the shape of the palate. DESIGN: We conducted a geometric morphometric analysis to compare palate shape in the clinically unaffected parents of children with nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate and adult controls of European, Asian, and African ancestry. We conducted pairwise group comparisons using canonical variates analysis, and then confirmed and characterized findings of shape differences using Euclidean distance matrix analysis. RESULTS: Significant differences in palate shape were detected in unaffected mothers (but not fathers) compared to demographically matched controls. The differences in shape were ancestry-specific; mothers of Asian-derived and African-derived ancestry showed wider and shorter palates with higher posterior palatal vaults, while mothers of European-derived ancestry showed narrower palates with higher anterior palatal vaults. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that altered palate shape is a subclinical phenotypic feature, which may be indicative of elevated orofacial cleft risk. The risk phenotype varied by sex and ancestry, suggesting possible etiologic heterogeneity among demographic groups. Understanding the genetic basis of these informative palate shape traits may reveal new genes and pathways relevant to nonsyndromic orofacial clefting.