Biomechanical study of strength and stiffness of the knee anterolateral ligament.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies clearly characterize the anatomical parameters of the knee anterolateral ligament (ALL). The potential clinical importance of this ligament is exemplified by some patients with possible combined Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) and ALL rupture who do not progress satisfactorily following isolated ACL reconstruction. Previous biomechanical studies have assessed the resistance parameters of the ALL in order to address potential reconstruction strategies; however, these have reported conflicting results. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the linear resistance of the ALL by means of a biomechanical study in cadaveric knees. METHODS: Fourteen cadaveric knees were used. The ALL was dissected, and all structures that connect the femur and the tibia, except for the ALL, were sectioned. The ALL was subjected to a tensile test with the knee around 30 to 40 degrees, in a way that the ALL was aligned with the machine. The strength at the maximum resistance limit, deformation and stiffness of the ALL were evaluated. RESULTS: The mean maximum strength of the ALL was 204.8 +/- 114.9 N. The stiffness was 41.9 +/- 25.7 N/mm and the deformation 10.3 +/- 3.5 mm. CONCLUSION: The ALL has a mean ultimate tensile strength of 204.8 N. This suggests that simple bands of all autologous or homologous grafts commonly used in clinical practice for ligament reconstruction around the knee possess the required biomechanical resistance characteristics for ALL reconstruction.

In vivo evaluation of porous hydrogel pins to fill osteochondral defects in rabbits.

OBJECTIVE: This experimental study aimed to evaluate the biological performance of poly (l-co-D, l-lactic acid)-co-trimetilene carbonate/poly (vinyl alcohol) (PLDLA-co TMC/PVA), hydrogel scaffolds, as an implant in the filling (and not in the repair) of osteochondral defects in New Zealand rabbits, assessing the influence of the material in tissue protection in vivo. METHODS: Twelve rabbits were divided into groups of nine and 16 weeks. In each animal, an osteochondral defect was created in both medial femoral condyles. In one knee, a hydrogel scaffold was implanted (pin group) and in the other, the defect was maintained (control group). A histological analysis of the material was performed after euthanasia. RESULTS: The condyles of the pin group showed no inflammatory reaction and were surrounded by a fibrous capsule. The control group presented higher bone growth in the areas of the defect, but with disorganized articular cartilage, evident fibrosis, bone exposure, atrophy, and proliferation of synovial membrane. CONCLUSION: The hydrogel pins are promising in filling osteochondral defects, generally do not cause inflammatory reactions, and are not effective in the repair of osteochondral defects.

OBJETIVO: Trabalho experimental para avaliar o desempenho biológico de arcabouços de hidrogel poli (l-co-D, l ácido lático)-co-trimetileno carbonato/poli (álcool vinílico) (PLDLA-co-TMC/PVA) como implante no preenchimento, e não no reparo, de defeito osteocondral em coelhos Nova Zelândia e verificar a influência do material na proteção tecidual in vivo. MÉTODOS: Foram usados 12 coelhos divididos em grupos de nove e 16 semanas. Em cada animal foi criado um defeito osteocondral em ambos os côndilos femorais mediais, em um foi implantado um arcabouço de hidrogel (grupo pino) e no outro foi mantido o defeito (grupo controle). Após o sacrifício dos animais, foi feita análise histológica do material. RESULTADOS: Os côndilos do grupo pino não evidenciaram reação inflamatória e estavam rodeados por cápsula fibrosa. Já no grupo controle, uma maior proliferação óssea foi observada nas áreas do defeito, porém com cartilagem articular desorganizada, fibrose evidente, atrofia com exposição óssea e proliferação de membrana sinovial. CONCLUSÃO: Os pinos de hidrogel são promissores na função de preenchimento de defeitos osteocondrais, não ocasionam, de modo geral, reação inflamatória e não são eficazes no reparo de defeitos osteocondrais.

Why Do Authors Differ With Regard to the Femoral and Meniscal Anatomic Parameters of the Knee Anterolateral Ligament?: Dissection by Layers and a Description of Its Superficial and Deep Layers.

BACKGROUND: No consensus exists regarding the anatomic characteristics of the knee anterolateral ligament (ALL). A critical analysis of the dissections described in previous studies allows the division of the ALL into 2 groups with similar characteristics. The presence of considerable variability suggests that the authors may not be referring to the same structure. PURPOSE/HYPOTHESIS: To perform a lateral anatomic dissection, by layers, seeking to characterize the 2 variants described for the ALL on the same knee. We hypothesized that we would identify the 2 variants described for the ALL and that these variants would have distinct characteristics. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive laboratory study. METHODS: Thirteen unpaired cadaveric knees were used in this study. The dissection protocol followed the parameters described in previous studies. Immediately below the iliotibial tract, we isolated a structure designated as the superficial ALL, whereas between this structure and the articular capsule, we isolated a structure designated as the deep ALL. The 2 structures were measured for length at full extension and at 90° of flexion and for distance from the tibial insertion relative to the Gerdy tubercle. Potential contact with the lateral meniscus was also evaluated. After measurements were obtained, the 2 dissected structures underwent histologic analysis. RESULTS: The superficial ALL presented a posterior and proximal origin to the center of the lateral epicondyle, its length increased on knee extension, and it exhibited no contact with the lateral meniscus. The deep ALL was located in the center of the lateral epicondyle, its length increased on knee flexion, and it presented a meniscal insertion. Both structures had a similar tibial insertion site; however, the insertion site of the deep ALL was located more posteriorly. The analysis of the histological sections for both structures indicated the presence of dense and well-organized collagen fibers. CONCLUSION: This anatomic study clearly identified 2 structures, described as the superficial and deep ALL, which were consistent with previous but conflicting descriptions of the ALL. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This study clarifies numerous controversies encountered in anatomic studies of the ALL. Knowledge regarding the existence of 2 distinct structures in the anterolateral knee will allow more accurate evaluation of their functions and characteristics.

PLDLA/PCL-T Scaffold for Meniscus Tissue Engineering.

The inability of the avascular region of the meniscus to regenerate has led to the use of tissue engineering to treat meniscal injuries. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of fibrochondrocytes preseeded on PLDLA/PCL-T [poly(L-co-D,L-lactic acid)/poly(caprolactone-triol)] scaffolds to stimulate regeneration of the whole meniscus. Porous PLDLA/PCL-T (90/10) scaffolds were obtained by solvent casting and particulate leaching. Compressive modulus of 9.5±1.0 MPa and maximum stress of 4.7±0.9 MPa were evaluated. Fibrochondrocytes from rabbit menisci were isolated, seeded directly on the scaffolds, and cultured for 21 days. New Zealand rabbits underwent total meniscectomy, after which implants consisting of cell-free scaffolds or cell-seeded scaffolds were introduced into the medial knee meniscus; the negative control group consisted of rabbits that received no implant. Macroscopic and histological evaluations of the neomeniscus were performed 12 and 24 weeks after implantation. The polymer scaffold implants adapted well to surrounding tissues, without apparent rejection, infection, or chronic inflammatory response. Fibrocartilaginous tissue with mature collagen fibers was observed predominantly in implants with seeded scaffolds compared to cell-free implants after 24 weeks. Similar results were not observed in the control group. Articular cartilage was preserved in the polymeric implants and showed higher chondrocyte cell number than the control group. These findings show that the PLDLA/PCL-T 90/10 scaffold has potential for orthopedic applications since this material allowed the formation of fibrocartilaginous tissue, a structure of crucial importance for repairing injuries to joints, including replacement of the meniscus and the protection of articular cartilage from degeneration.

In vivo evaluation of porous hydrogel pins to fill osteochondral defects in rabbits / Avaliação do desempenho in vivo de pinos porosos de hidrogel para preenchimento de defeito osteocondral em coelhos

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE: This experimental study aimed to evaluate the biological performance of poly (l-co-D, l-lactic acid)-co-trimetilene carbonate/poly (vinyl alcohol) (PLDLA-co TMC/PVA), hydrogel scaffolds, as an implant in the filling (and not in the repair) of osteochondral defects in New Zealand rabbits, assessing the influence of the material in tissue protection in vivo. METHODS: Twelve rabbits were divided into groups of nine and 16 weeks. In each animal, an osteochondral defect was created in both medial femoral condyles. In one knee, a hydrogel scaffold was implanted (pin group) and in the other, the defect was maintained (control group). A histological analysis of the material was performed after euthanasia. RESULTS: The condyles of the pin group showed no inflammatory reaction and were surrounded by a fibrous capsule. The control group presented higher bone growth in the areas of the defect, but with disorganized articular cartilage, evident fibrosis, bone exposure, atrophy, and proliferation of synovial membrane. CONCLUSION: The hydrogel pins are promising in filling osteochondral defects, generally do not cause inflammatory reactions, and are not effective in the repair of osteochondral defects.

RESUMO OBJETIVO: Trabalho experimental para avaliar o desempenho biológico de arcabouços de hidrogel poli (L-co-D, L ácido lático)-co-trimetileno carbonato/poli (álcool vinílico) (PLDLA-co-TMC/PVA) como implante no preenchimento, e não no reparo, de defeito osteocondral em coelhos Nova Zelândia e verificar a influência do material na proteção tecidual in vivo. MÉTODOS: Foram usados 12 coelhos divididos em grupos de nove e 16 semanas. Em cada animal foi criado um defeito osteocondral em ambos os côndilos femorais mediais, em um foi implantado um arcabouço de hidrogel (grupo pino) e no outro foi mantido o defeito (grupo controle). Após o sacrifício dos animais, foi feita análise histológica do material. RESULTADOS: Os côndilos do grupo pino não evidenciaram reação inflamatória e estavam rodeados por cápsula fibrosa. Já no grupo controle, uma maior proliferação óssea foi observada nas áreas do defeito, porém com cartilagem articular desorganizada, fibrose evidente, atrofia com exposição óssea e proliferação de membrana sinovial. CONCLUSÃO: Os pinos de hidrogel são promissores na função de preenchimento de defeitos osteocondrais, não ocasionam, de modo geral, reação inflamatória e não são eficazes no reparo de defeitos osteocondrais.

BIORESORBABLE POLYMERIC MENISCAL PROSTHESIS: STUDY IN RABBITS.

OBJECTIVE: To induce growth of a neomeniscus into the pores of a prosthesis in order to protect the knee joint cartilage. METHODS: 70 knees of 35 New Zealand rabbits were operated. The rabbits were five to seven months old, weighed 2 to 3.8 kilograms, and 22 were male and 13 were female. Each animal underwent medial meniscectomy in both knees during a single operation. A bioabsorbable polymeric meniscal prosthesis composed of 70% polydioxanone and 30% L-lactic acid polymer was implanted in one side. The animals were sacrificed after different postoperative time intervals. The femoral condyles and neomeniscus were subjected to histological analysis. Histograms were used to measure the degradation and absorption of the prosthesis, the growth of meniscal tissue in the prosthesis and the degree of degradation of the femoral condyle joint cartilage. RESULTS: The data obtained showed that tissue growth histologically resembling a normal meniscus occurred, with gradual absorption of the prosthesis, and the percentages of chondrocytes on the control side and prosthesis side. CONCLUSION: Tissue growth into the prosthesis pores that histologically resembled the normal rabbit meniscus was observed. The joint cartilage of the femoral condyles on the prosthesis side presented greater numbers of chondrocytes in all its layers.

Prótese meniscal de polímero bioabsorvível: estudo em coelhos / Bioresorbable polymeric meniscal prosthesis: study in rabbits

OBJETIVO: Obter o crescimento de um neomenisco por entre as porosidades da prótese com objetivo de proteger a cartilagem articular do joelho. MÉTODOS: Foram operados 70 joelhos de 35 coelhos Nova Zelândia com idades entre cinco e sete meses, pesando entre dois e 3,8 quilogramas, sendo 22 machos e 13 fêmeas. Submetidos no mesmo tempo cirúrgico à meniscectomia medial nos dois joelhos, em um lado foi implantada prótese meniscal de polímero bioabsorvível composta por 70 por cento de poli (dioxanona) e 30 por cento de poli (L-ácido láctico). Realizada eutanásia com diferentes tempos pós-implante. Os côndilos femorais mediais e o neomenisco foram submetidos à análise histológica, observando-se a degradação e absorção da prótese, o crescimento de tecido meniscal na mesma, e o grau de degradação da cartilagem articular dos côndilos femorais, medido pelo histograma. RESULTADOS: Os dados obtidos avaliaram o crescimento de tecido histologicamente semelhante ao menisco normal, com absorção gradual da prótese e a porcentagem de condrócitos no lado controle e no lado com implante da prótese. CONCLUSÕES: Ocorreu crescimento de tecido por entre os poros da prótese com características histológicas semelhantes a do menisco normal de coelho. A cartilagem articular dos côndilos femorais no lado com implante da prótese apresenta maior número de condrócitos em todas as suas camadas.

OBJECTIVE: To induce the ingrowth of a neomeniscus between the pores of the prosthesis in order to protect the articular cartilage of the knee. METHODS: 70 knees of 35 New Zealand rabbits were operated. The rabbits were five to seven months old, weighed 2 to 3.8 kilograms. 22 were male and 13 were female. Each animal underwent medial meniscectomy in both knees during the same time of surgery, having a bioresorbable polymeric meniscal prosthesis composed of 70 percent polydioxanone and 30 percent L-lactic acid polymer implanted in one side. They were submitted to euthanasia after different post-operative time points. The femoral condyles and the neomeniscus were submitted to histological analysis. Histogram was employed to analyze tissue ingrowth into the prosthesis, degradation and absorption of the prosthesis and tissue ingrowth and degradation of the femoral condyle cartilage. RESULTS: The data obtained evaluated the ingrowth of tissue histologically resembling a normal meniscus, with gradual prosthesis absorption and the percentage of chondrocytes on the control side and prosthesis side. CONCLUSION: Tissue ingrowth into the porous prosthesis histologically resembling a normal rabbit meniscus was observed. The articular cartilage of the femoral condyles on the prosthesis side presented more chondrocytes in all its layers.

Bioreabsorbable polymer scaffold as temporary meniscal prosthesis.

Menisci have an important role in load bearing, shock absorption, knee joint stability, and joint lubrication. Meniscal lesions and meniscectomy are followed by osteoarthritis in a high percentage of patients. At present, there is no ideal prosthesis for meniscal substitution. In this work, a bioreabsorbable polymer scaffold made of poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) and poly(p-dioxanone) (PPD) blend was developed to be used as a temporary meniscal prosthesis to stimulate the formation of an in situ meniscal replication while the scaffold is reabsorbed by the organism. Total meniscectomy of medial meniscus and arthrotomy was made in both back knees of 34 adult New Zealand white rabbits by medial parapatellar incision. The scaffolds were sutured in one of the knees, and other was used as a control. A meniscal replica was developed, suggesting that this material has great potential to be used as a meniscal prosthesis, especially because the new meniscus promoted a significant protection of cartilage, and cartilage degeneration in the control condyles was observed.

Incidência da prega sinovial medial do joelho: estudo em cadáveres / Incidence of medial shelf in the knee: study in cadavers

Foram dissecados em sala de autópsia 100 joelhos de 50 cadáveres frescos (näo formolizados), adultos, do sexo masculino, utilizando incisao parapatelar lateral, com secçäo parcial dos tendöes quadricipital e patelar; observou-se presença ou näo de pregas sinoviais mediais, que foram classificadas em quatro diferentes tipos morfológicos. Constataram-se lesöes associadas em meniscos, ligamentos, cartilagem e sinovial. Obteve-se, com essas observaçöes, a incidência da prega medial e sua correlaçäo com outras alteraçöes intra-articulares e idade, concluindo näo haver qualquer relaçäo entre incidência de prega medial e idade. Também näo ficou demonstrada qualquer correlaçäo com outras alteraçöes, a näo ser uma erosäo longitudinal na cartilagem articular da faceta medial da patela, em apenas um caso.