Conducting Polymers in the Fields of Energy, Environmental Remediation, and Chemical-Chiral Sensors.

Conducting polymers (CPs), thanks to their unique properties, structures made on-demand, new composite mixtures, and possibility of deposit on a surface by chemical, physical, or electrochemical methodologies, have shown in the last years a renaissance and have been widely used in important fields of chemistry and materials science. Due to the extent of the literature on CPs, this review, after a concise introduction about the interrelationship between electrochemistry and conducting polymers, is focused exclusively on the following applications: energy (energy storage devices and solar cells), use in environmental remediation (anion and cation trapping, electrocatalytic reduction/oxidation of pollutants on CP based electrodes, and adsorption of pollutants) and finally electroanalysis as chemical sensors in solution, gas phase, and chiral molecules. This review is expected to be comprehensive, authoritative, and useful to the chemical community interested in CPs and their applications.

Nuclear lactate dehydrogenase modulates histone modification in human hepatocytes.

It is becoming increasingly apparent that the nucleus harbors metabolic enzymes that affect genetic transforming events. Here, we describe a nuclear isoform of lactate dehydrogenase (nLDH) and its ability to orchestrate histone deacetylation by controlling the availability of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)), a key ingredient of the sirtuin-1 (SIRT1) deacetylase system. There was an increase in the expression of nLDH concomitant with the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the culture medium. Under oxidative stress, the NAD(+) generated by nLDH resulted in the enhanced deacetylation of histones compared to the control hepatocytes despite no discernable change in the levels of SIRT1. There appeared to be an intimate association between nLDH and SIRT1 as these two enzymes co-immunoprecipitated. The ability of nLDH to regulate epigenetic modifications by manipulating NAD(+) reveals an intricate link between metabolism and the processing of genetic information.

Chiral conducting surfaces via electrochemical oxidation of L-leucine-oligothiophenes.

Polythiophenes bearing a specific chiral center such as L-leucine have been prepared via the electrochemical oxidation of a series of L-leucine functionalized oligothiophenes (monothiophenes and terthiophenes). These oligothiophenes have been prepared through the condensation of L-leucine methyl ester and the corresponding thiophene monomers in the presence of hydroxybenzotriazole (HOBt) and N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) followed by hydrolysis of the esters. The electroactive polymers are electrochemically stable and exhibit excellent adhesive properties on electrode surfaces (platinum, gold, and glassy carbon) as well as interesting optical properties in both doped and undoped states. Hydrogen bonds between a free amino acid (L-leucine, D-leucine, L-alanine, D-alanine, and D/L-alanine) and the L-leucine based polythiophenes (chiral conducting surface) were probed using cyclic voltammetry. Preliminary results show that the capacitive current of a modified L-leucine-polythiophene electrode decreases as a result of the formation of a hydrogen bond barrier on the surface of the chiral conducting surface accompanied with a shift of the oxidation potential. Cyclic voltammetry responses resulting from the interaction of the chiral conducting surface with L and Dfree amino acid isomers are similar. The formation of hydrogen bonds between the chiral conducting surfaces and the free amino acids was characterized by (1)H NMR. A chemical shift was observed for the N-H group in monomer 6 as a result of the hydrogen bond formation between the L-leucine methyl ester (D-leucine methyl ester, D/L-leucine methyl ester) and monomer 6.

4-Nitrophenyl sulfenyl chloride as a new precursor for the formation of aromatic SAMs on gold surfaces.

4-Nitrophenyl sulfenyl chloride was used as a new precursor for the formation of densely packed aromatic SAMs on gold. The adsorption involves the reductive dissociation of the S-Cl bond. A well-ordered row structure corresponding to a √3 × 4 phase with a molecular area of 27.8 Å(2) is obtained.

Preparation and coordination complex of the first imine-bridged tetrathiafulvalene-pyridine donor ligand.

The first imine-bridged pyridyltetrathiafulvalene building block (TTF-CH=N-Py, 1) has been synthesized via the Schiff base condensation of formyltetrathiafulvalene and 2-aminopyridine. The preparation, X-ray crystal structure, electrochemical and magnetic characterization of a 1:1 copper complex [CuII(hfac)2(TTF-CH=N-Py)] (2) are reported. The crystal structure reveals that the imine N atom participates in chelation to the paramagnetic center, thus making this ligand an attractive precursor for the assembly of pi-d systems.

Cyclopropyl conjugation and ketyl anions: when do things begin to fall apart?

Results pertaining to the electrochemical reduction of 1,2-diacetylcyclopropane (5), 1-acetyl-2-phenylcyclopropane (6), 1-acetyl-2-benzoylcyclopropane (7), and 1,2-dibenzoylcyclopropane (8) are reported. While 6*- exists as a discrete species, the barrier to ring opening is very small (<1 kcal/mol) and the rate constant for ring opening is >10(7) s(-1). For 7 and 8, the additional resonance stabilization afforded by the benzoyl moieties results in significantly lower rate constants for ring opening, on the order of 10(5)-10(6) s(-1). Electron transfer to 8 serves to initiate an unexpected vinylcyclopropane --> cyclopentene type rearrangement, which occurs via a radical ion chain mechanism. The results for reduction of 5 are less clear-cut: The experimental results suggest that the reduction is unexceptional, with a symmetry coefficient alpha

Radical/Ion pair formation in the electrochemical reduction of arene sulfenyl chlorides.

Important aspects of the electrochemical reduction of a series of substituted arene sulfenyl chlorides are investigated. A striking change is observed in the reductive cleavage mechanism as a function of the substituent on the aryl ring of the arene sulfenyl chloride. With p-substituted phenyl chlorides a "sticky" dissociative ET mechanism takes place where a concerted ET mechanism leads to the formation of a radical/anion cluster before decomposition. With o-nitropheyl sulfenyl substituted chlorides a stepwise mechanism is observed where through space S...O interactions play an important role stabilizing both the neutral molecules and their reduced forms. Disulfides are generated through a nucleophilic reaction of the two-electron reduction produced anion (arenethiolate) on the parent molecule. The dissociative electron transfer theory, as well as its extension to the case of strong in-cage interactions between the produced fragments, along with the gas phase chemical quantum calculations results helped rationalize both the observed change in the ET mechanism and the occurrence of the "sticky dissociative" ET mechanism. The radical/anion pair interactions have been determined both in solution as well as in gas phase. This study shows that despite the low magnitude of in-cage interactions in acetonitrile as compared to in the gas phase, their existence strongly affects the kinetics of the involved reactions. It also shows that, as expected, these interactions are reinforced by the existence of strong electron-withdrawing substituents.

Synthesis and characterization of a new family of spin bearing TTF ligands.

The syntheses and characterization of two new tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) derivatives bearing pyridine-based substituents and 1,5'-dimethyl-6-oxoverdazyl radicals are described. The TTF-pyridine and bipyridine aldehydes were prepared via a palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction between mono(tributylstannyl)tetrathiafulvalene (3) and the appropriate formylpyridyl halides (4). The radical precursors, the corresponding 1,2,4,5-tetrazanes, were prepared by condensation of the bis(1-methylhydrazide) of carbonic acid with the TTF bearing pyridyl aldehyde. Oxidation of tetrazanes 8 and 9 with 1,4-benzoquinone afforded the donor radicals 1 and 2 as 1:1 complexes with hydroquinone. Both complexes are stable in the solid state and their electronic properties have been characterized by EPR, cyclic voltammetry, and UV/vis spectroscopy. The TTF core of both compounds was oxidized both chemically and electrochemically to afford the corresponding cation diradical species. The electronic properties of both donor radicals have been probed by cyclic voltammetry, UV-vis spectroscopy, and preliminary EPR measurements.

Cyclopropylcarbinyl --> homoallyl-type ring opening of ketyl radical anions. Structure/reactivity relationships and the contribution of solvent/counterion reorganization to the intrinsic barrier.

[reaction: see text] Following a protocol developed by Mathivanan, Johnston, and Wayner (J. Phys. Chem. 1995, 99, 8190-8195), the radical anions of several cyclopropyl- and oxiranyl-containing carbonyl compounds were generated in an effort to measure the rate constants for their ring opening (k(o)) by laser flash photolysis. The results of these experiments are compared to those obtained from earlier electrochemical studies, and the combined data set is used to rationalize the kinetics of radical anion ring opening in a general context by using Saveant's theory pertaining to stepwise dissociative electron transfer (Acc. Chem. Res. 1993, 26, 455-461). Compared to cyclopropylcarbinyl --> homoallyl rearrangements of neutral free radicals, at comparable driving force, the radical anion ring openings are slightly slower. The small difference in rate is attributed to the contribution of an additional, approximately 2 kcal/mol, solvent reorganization component for the radical anion rearrangements. The solvent reorganization energy for ring opening of these radical anions is believed to be small because the negative charge does not move appreciably in the progression reactant --> transition state --> product.

Activation/driving force relationships for cyclopropylcarbinyl --> homoallyl-type rearrangements of radical anions.

By using direct and indirect electrochemical methods, rate constants (ko) for cyclopropane ring opening of radical anions derived from the one-electron reduction of trans-1-benzoyl-2-phenylcyclopropane, trans-1-benzoyl-2-vinylcyclopropane, 2-methylenecyclopropyl phenyl ketone, spiro[anthracene-9,1'-cyclopropan-10-one], 3-cyclopropylcyclohex-2-en-1-one, and 3-(1-methylcyclopropyl)cyclohex-2-en-1-one were determined. Qualitatively, rate constants for ring opening of these (and other cyclopropyl- and cyclobutyl-containing radical anions) can be rationalized on the basis of the thermodynamic stability of the radical anion, the ability of substituents on the cyclopropyl group to stabilize the radical portion of the distonic radical anion, and the stability of the enolate portion of the distonic radical anion. On the basis of this notion, a thermochemical cycle for estimating deltaG(o) for ring opening was presented. For simple cyclopropyl-containing ketyl anions, a reasonable correlation between log(ko) and deltaG(o) was found, and stepwise dissociative electron transfer theory was applied to rationalize the results. Activation energies calculated with density functional theory (UB3LYP/6-31+G*) correlate reasonably well with measured log(ko). The derived log(ko) and deltaG(o) and log(ko) vs E(a) plots provide the basis for a "calibration curve" to predict rate constants for ring opening of radical anions derived from carbonyl compounds, in general.

A comparison of electron-transfer rates of ferrocenoyl-linked DNA.

Electron transfer (ET) through two configurations of double-stranded (ds)-DNA was investigated by the attachment of a ferrocenoyl (Fc)-labeled and thiol-labeled DNA to Au electrodes. The first configuration positions the Fc moiety on the same strand as the thiolate, whereas the second configuration positions the Fc group on the complementary strand. The subtle difference in structure leads to a difference in E0' values (29 mV) and in ET rate constants (25 vs 115 s-1). The results have led to a further understanding of electron transfer in ds-DNA, and several models of ET are proposed.