Non-amyloid and amyloid prion protein deposits in prion-infected mice differ in blockage of interstitial brain fluid.

AIMS: Prion diseases are characterized by brain deposits of misfolded aggregated protease-resistant prion protein (PrP), termed PrPres. In humans and animals, PrPres is found as either disorganized non-amyloid aggregates or organized amyloid fibrils. Both PrPres forms are found in extracellular spaces of the brain. Thus, both might block drainage of brain interstitial fluid (ISF). The present experiments studied whether ISF blockage occurred during amyloid and/or non-amyloid prion diseases. METHODS: Various-sized fluorescein-labelled ISF tracers were stereotactically inoculated into the striatum of adult mice. At times from 5 min to 77 h, uninfected and scrapie-infected mice were compared. C57BL/10 mice expressing wild-type anchored PrP, which develop non-amyloid PrPres similar to humans with sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, were compared with Tg44+/+ mice (transgenic mice secreting anchorless PrP) expressing anchorless PrP, which develop amyloid PrPres similar to certain human familial prion diseases. RESULTS: In C57BL/10 mice, extensive non-amyloid PrPres aggregate deposition was not associated with abnormal clearance kinetics of tracers. In contrast, scrapie-infected Tg44+/+ mice showed blockage of tracer clearance and colocalization of tracer with perivascular PrPres amyloid. CONCLUSIONS: As tracer localization and clearance was normal in infected C57BL/10 mice, ISF blockage was not an important pathogenic mechanism in this model. Therefore, ISF blockage is unlikely to be a problem in non-amyloid human prion diseases such as sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. In contrast, partial ISF blockage appeared to be a possible pathogenic mechanism in Tg44+/+ mice. Thus this mechanism might also influence human amyloid prion diseases where expression of anchorless or mutated PrP results in perivascular amyloid PrPres deposition and cerebral amyloid angiopathy.

H-2D (Rfv-1) gene influence on recovery from Friend virus leukemia is mediated by nonleukemic cells of the spleen and bone marrow.

H-2D (Rfv-1)-associated control of recovery from FV leukemia was studied in congenic mice. In irradiation chimeras, the high recovery phenotype was transferred by cells of the spleen, bone marrow, and fetal liver. Furthermore, in cell transfers using unirradiated recipients, spleen and bone marrow cells of the high-recovery genotype were able to mediate recovery from leukemia in mice of the low-recovery genotype. Thus, the H-2D (Rfv-1) influence on recovery appeared to operate via nonleukemic cells of the spleen and bone marrow rather than via leukemic cells. The specific nonleukemic cell type(s) involved in recovery remains unknown. However, the mechanism appears to be complex and probably involves both anti-FV antibody and FV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes.

H-2D control of recovery from Friend virus leukemia: H-2D region influences the kinetics of the T lymphocyte response to Friend virus.

A Friend virus (FV)-specific T lymphocyte proliferation assay was used to compare the T lymphocyte responses of H-2 congenic mice that differed in their ability to recover from FV leukemia after inoculation of high virus doses. Gene(s) of the H-2D region influenced the kinetics of this response such that H-2Db/b homozygous mice were positive 6-8 d earlier than H-2Dd/b mice. This correlated with the Rfv-1, H-2D-linked influence on recovery from FV by these mice, and also appeared to explain the prominent effect of virus dose on recovery incidence. These findings were supported by the ability of passively transferred immune splenic T lymphocytes to induce recovery from leukemia at 6 d after FV inoculation, but not at 16 d. H-2a/a mice were found to be unresponsive in the FV-specific T lymphocyte proliferation assay. This effect mapped to the left of H-2D, possibly in the H-2I region, and may be an in vitro manifestation of the Rfv-2 gene. No evidence for nonspecific immunosuppression of the T lymphocyte response to concanavalin A was observed in any of the H-2 congenic F1 mice studied.

Studies on the role of the host immune response in recovery from Friend virus leukemia. I. Antiviral and antileukemia cell antibodies.

The humoral immune response to Friend virus leukemia was studied in congenic F1 mice differing in their incidence of recovery from leukemia. Antiviral neutralizing antibodies rose in titer in vivo concurrently with disappearance of viremia and fall in spleen virus levels. Cytotoxic antileukemia cell antibodies also appeared at this time. Passive transfer of these antibodies could inactivate low numbers of leukemia cells in vivo; however, mice of both high and low recovery genotypes produced antibodies in equal titer and recovered from viral infection in spite of striking differences in recovery from leukemic splenomegaly. Mice lacking C57BL genes did not produce antibodies or recover from viremia except in rare instances. Recovery from splenomegaly was found to be influenced by three or more C57BL genes independent of the H-2 complex.

Antibody-induced loss of Friend virus leukemia cell surface antigens occurs during progression of erythroleukemia in F1 mice.

Friend virus (FV)-induced leukemic spleen cells from (B10.A X A)F1 mice were found to lose sensitivity to antibody-mediated lysis during progression of erythroleukemia. This was correlated with a 78% loss of FV-induced cell surface antigens as determined by quantitative absorption of cytotoxic antibodies and with a decreased percentage of leukemic spleen cells showing membrane immunofluorescence with anti-FV antibody. Antigen loss was observed only with virus-induced antigens, and was limited to antigens expressed on the cell surface. FV-induced antigens were regained when low-antigen leukemia cells from late stages of the leukemia were transferred to lethally irradiated nonimmune recipients, but not when these cells were transferred to hyperimmune lethally irradiated recipients. Conversely, when high-antigen leukemic spleen cells from early stages of the erythroleukemia were transferred to hyperimmune irradiated recipients, antigen loss was induced. The immune response to virus-induced antigens appeared to be involved in causing the antigenic changes observed on leukemia cells in this system.

Anti-Friend virus antibody is associated with recovery from viremia and loss of viral leukemia cell-surface antigens in leukemic mice. Identification of Rfv-3 as a gene locus influencing antibody production.

A single genetic locus, Rfv-3, influenced Friend virus (FV) viremia, loss of FV-induced cell-surface antigens from leukemia cells, and generation of anti-FV antibodies. 30--90 d after FV infection leukemic spleen cells from (B10.A X A)F1 and (B10.A X A.BY)F1 mice (Rfv-3r/s) were found to have low FV-induced cell-surface antigen expression compared to leukemic spleen cells from A and A.BY mice (Rfv-3s/s). In addition, these F1 mice recovered from viremia and generated cytotoxic anti-FV antibodies. A and A.BY mice did not recover from viremia and failed to generate anti-FV antibodies. Anti-FV leukemia cell antibody appeared to mediate FV-antigen loss because decrease of FV cell-surface antigens occurred at the same time as anti-FV antibody appeared in the plasma of F1 mice, and passive transfer of anti-FV antisera induced modulation of FV cell-surface antigens. Rfv-3 did not influence an intrinsic ability of FV antigens to be modulated from Rfv-3s/s leukemia cells because FV antigen loss from Rfv-3s/s spleen cells occurred after transfer of cells to an immune environment.

Studies on the role of the host immune response in recovery from Friend virus leukemia. II. Cell-mediated immunity.

Congenic mouse strains differing only at genes within the H-2 complex were found to have virus-specific cytotoxic effector cells in their spleens during or after recovery from Friend leukemia virus-induced splenomegaly. These effector cells were theta-positive T lymphocytes which functioned in vitro without help or inhibition by B lymphocytes or glass-adherent cells. The antigenic specificities recognized by the effector cells were viral-induced cellular antigens apparently different from those identified by serological techniques.

Ultrastructural studies of human and rabbit alpha-M-globulins.

Electron micrographs of isolated human alpha(2)M-molecules, obtained by the negative contrast technique, revealed morphologically homogenous structures resembling a graceful monogram of the two letters H and I. The modal values for the length and width of the alpha(2)M particles were 170 A and 100 A, respectively. Purified rabbit alphamacroglobulins contained about 80% alpha(1)M- and 20% alpha(2)M-globulins. The isolated rabbit alpha(1)M- and alpha(2)M-molecules were morphologically indistinguishable from one another and from human alpha(2)M-molecules. Preliminary immunoprecipitation studies demonstrated that the two rabbit alphaM-globulins were antigenically different. Sedimentation constant determinations gave s(20, w) values of 18.8 and 18.2 for rabbit alpha(1)M and alpha(2)M, respectively.

New cell surface gp70 related to Friend mink cell focus-inducing virus is expressed on Friend virus-induced erythroleukemic spleen cells after elimination of ecotropic Friend virus gp70 in Rfv-3r/s mice.

Spleen cells from Rfv-3r/s mice with Friend virus-induced erythroleukemia were analyzed for expression of virus-induced proteins with monoclonal antiviral antibodies and conventional antisera. Leukemic spleen cells, 30-60 d after virus inoculation, expressed decreased amounts of ecotropic Friend murine leukemia helper virus gag- and env-encoded cell surface and intracellular proteins compared with leukemic cells tested 8-10 d after virus inoculation. In contrast, the spleen focus-forming virus-induced protein, gp55, was present on both leukemia cell populations. This difference appeared to be mediated by the humoral antibody response in Rfv-3r/s mice, which could recognize only ecotropic gag and env proteins, and not gp55. A new gp70 molecule cross-reactive with a recombinant Friend mink cell focus-inducing virus was found in large quantities on late leukemic cells. This protein appeared to be derived from a recombinant virus produced during the course of Friend virus infection. The appearance of this new gp70 suggests that recombinant viruses other than spleen focus-forming virus may play a role in Friend virus-induced erythroleukemia.

Influence of the murine MHC (H-2) on Friend leukemia virus-induced immunosuppression.

Friend murine leukemia virus complex (FV)-induced immunosuppression was studied by assaying splenic anti-SRBC PFC responses and plasma antibody titers in mice at various times after FV inoculation. Genes located within the H-2 complex were found to influence resistance to FV-induced immunosuppression. Near normal responses were observed in mice having the H-2a/b or H-2b/b genotype, whereas mice having the H-2a/a genotype were suppressed. This H-2 effect was observed not only in mice having heterozygous C57BL/10 X A background genes, including Rfv-3r/s, but also was apparent in mice having homozygous A-strain background genes, including Rfv-3s/s. Therefore, the Rfv-3 gene did not appear to convey resistance to FV-induced immunosuppression. The suppression in susceptible H-2a/a mice was characterized by a partial suppression of the IgM response and a profound suppression of both the primary and secondary IgG responses. Neither splenomegaly nor viremia alone appeared to be sufficient for the induction or maintenance of the immunosuppression. The mechanism of suppression was unclear, but both B lymphocyte and T lymphocyte functions appeared to be altered.

Genetic control of T cell responsiveness to the Friend murine leukemia virus envelope antigen. Identification of class II loci of the H-2 as immune response genes.

T cells primed specifically for the envelope glycoprotein of Friend murine leukemia helper virus (F-MuLV) were prepared by immunizing mice with a recombinant vaccinia virus that expressed the entire env gene of F-MuLV. Significant proliferative responses of F-MuLV envelope-specific, H-2a/b T cells were observed when the T cells were stimulated with antigen-pulsed peritoneal exudate cells (PEC) having the b allele at the K, A beta, A alpha, and E beta loci of the H-2. On the other hand, PEC having only the kappa allele at these loci did not induce the envelope-specific T cell proliferation, even when the PEC had the b allele at the E alpha, S, or D loci. F-MuLV envelope-specific proliferation of H-2a/b T cells under the stimulation of antigen-pulsed, H-2a/b PEC was specifically blocked with anti-I-Ab and anti-I-Ek mAbs but not with anti-Kb, anti-Kk, or anti-I-Ak mAbs. Moreover, (B10.MBR x A/WySn)F1 mice that have the b allele only at the K locus but not in I-A subregion were nonresponders to the envelope glycoprotein, and the bm12 mutation at the A beta locus completely abolished the T cell responsiveness to this antigen. These results indicate that proliferative T cells recognize a limited number of epitopes on F-MuLV envelope protein in the context of I-Ab, hybrid I-Ak/b, and/or hybrid I-Ek/b class II MHC molecules but fail to recognize the same envelope protein in the context of I-Ak or I-Ek molecules. This influence of the H-2I region on T cell recognition of the envelope glycoprotein appeared to control in vivo induction of protective immunity against Friend virus complex after immunization with the vaccinia-F-MuLV env vaccine. Thus, these results provide, for the first time, direct evidence for Ir gene-controlled responder/nonresponder phenotypes influencing the immune response to a pathogenic virus of mice.

Identification of a unique erythroleukemia-associated retroviral gp70 expressed during early stages of normal erythroid differentiation.

Late in the course of Friend virus (FV)-induced erythroleukemia, leukemic spleen cells express a cell surface retroviral gp70 envelope protein not detected during the early proliferative phase of the disease. Characterization of this gp70 revealed it was unrelated to the input Friend murine leukemia virus (F-MuLV), but antigenically similar to a unique subset of endogenous xenotropic viruses. This gp70 was expressed by murine erythroleukemia cell lines but has not been identified on cell lines of other lineages. A monoclonal antibody (18-6) specifically reactive with this polypeptide was used to examine hematopoietic organs of normal uninoculated mice. This antibody detected a gp70 expressed by a majority of erythroid cells in fetal liver and by a small but significant percentage of normal adult spleen and bone marrow cells. Increased erythropoietic activity induced by treatment of adult mice with phenylhydrazine ( PHZ ) resulted in a seven- to eightfold increase in the frequency of spleen and bone marrow cells expressing this gp70. Peptide map analysis indicated that the 18-6 reactive gp70 expressed by Friend erythroleukemia cells and by cells from normal fetal liver were structurally identical. These results suggested that this unique gp70 was an erythroid-specific differentiation antigen.

The ultrastructure of normal and pathological IgM immunoglobulins.

Free IgM immunoglobulins were examined in the electron microscope using the negative contrast technique. Normal human and rabbit IgM and Waldenström macroglobulins were indistinguishable from one another and revealed flexible spider-like particles with five appendages joining a central ring. The average total span of the molecules was 300 A. The appendages were about 125 x 30 A; the central ring had an outer diameter of approximately 100 A and an inner diameter of 40 A. Some purified 19S IgM preparations tended to form massive aggregates (>/=50S) which, when examined in the electron microscope, revealed enormous clumps of IgM molecules whose appendages were entangled with one another. Electron microscopy of reduced-alkylated IgM revealed total absence of intact spider-like molecules. The predominating structure observed was a round electron-dense knob about 50 A in diameter which in some cases had a fine fiber-like extension with approximate dimensions 100 x 15 A. Rabbit and human IgM molecules with antibody activity to poliovirus dried in sodium tungstosilicate on a carbon film as in preparation for electron microscopy were shown to retain nearly 100% of their poliovirus neutralizing activity after redissolving in a physiological buffer.

Host genetic control of recovery from Friend leukemia virus-induced splenomegaly: mapping of a gene within the major histocompatability complex.

The influence of the major mouse histocompatibility gene complex (H-2) on the response of mice to Friend leukemia virus was studied in F(1) congenic mice differing only at genes within the H-2 complex. F(1) mice which were H-2(b/b) had a high incidence of recovery from splenomegaly compared to H-2(b/d) or H-2(b/a) mice. In mice with recombinations within the H-2 complex a gene (designated RFV-1), responsible for the Friend virus recovery effect, was found to map near or within the D region of serologically detectable transplantation antigens. Because the incidence of recovery was much higher in F(1)H-2(b/b) mice than in parental H-2(b/b) mice, other non-H-2 host genetic factors also appear to be important to expression of recovery in H-2(b/b) F(1) mice. The mechanisms of action of these genes remain unknown.

Prion protein and the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are fatal neurodegenerative diseases that occur in a wide variety of mammals. In humans, TSE diseases include kuru, sporadic and iatrogenic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome (GSS), and fatal familial insomnia (FFI). So far, TSE diseases occur only rarely in humans; however, scrapie is a widespread problem in sheep, and the recent epidemic of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or mad cow disease) has seriously affected the British cattle industry. Of special concern is the recent appearance of a new variant of CJD in humans that is suspected of being caused by infections from BSE-infected cattle products. In all these diseases, an abnormal form of a host protein, prion protein (PrP), is essential for the pathogenic process. The relationship of this protein to the transmissible agent is currently the subject of great interest and controversy and is the subject of this review.

Ultrastructure of gamma-M immunoglobulin and alpha macroglobulin: electron-microscopic study.

Electron microscopy of purified Waldenström macroglobulins and normal human and rabbit gammaM immunoglobulins revealed spider-like structures with five legs varying in length and often joining a central ring. Usually only the central more rigid part of this structure (about 150 by 170 angstroms) was clearly visible, but occasionally particles were seen with longer very flexible legs having a total span of about 350 angstroms. Molecules of gammaM antibody retained antibody activity during preparation for electron microscopy. Human and rabbit alpha macroglobulins revealed more rigid symmetric structures (100 by 200 angstroms) which resembled the Russian letter .

T-lymphocyte priming and protection against Friend leukemia by vaccinia-retrovirus env gene recombinant.

The current prevalence of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome in humans has provoked renewed interest in methods of protective immunization against retrovirus-induced diseases. In this study, a vaccinia-retrovirus recombinant vector was constructed to study mechanisms of immune protection against Friend virus leukemia in mice. The envelope (env) gene from Friend murine leukemia virus (F-MuLV) was inserted into the genome of a vaccinia virus expression vector. Infected cells synthesized gp85, the glycosylated primary product of the env gene. Processing to gp70 and p15E, and cell surface localization, were similar to that occurring in cells infected with F-MuLV. Mice inoculated with live recombinant vaccinia virus had an envelope-specific T-cell proliferative response and, after challenge with Friend virus complex, developed neutralizing antibody and cytotoxic T cells (CTL) and were protected against leukemia. In contrast, unimmunized and control groups developed a delayed neutralizing antibody response, but no detectable CTL, and succumbed to leukemia. Genes of the major histocompatibility complex influenced protection induced by the vaccinia recombinant but not that induced by attenuated N-tropic Friend virus.

Cloning of a gene whose expression is increased in scrapie and in senile plaques in human brain.

A complementary DNA library was constructed from messenger RNA's extracted from the brains of mice infected with the scrapie agent. The library was differentially screened with the objectives of finding clones that might be used as markers of infection and finding clones of genes whose increased expression might be correlated with the pathological changes common to scrapie and Alzheimer's disease. A gene was identified whose expression is increased in scrapie. The complementary DNA corresponding to this gene hybridized preferentially and focally to cells in the brains of scrapie-infected animals. The cloned DNA also hybridized to the neuritic plaques found with increased frequency in brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease.

Neuron-specific expression of a hamster prion protein minigene in transgenic mice induces susceptibility to hamster scrapie agent.

To study the effect of cell type-restricted hamster PrP expression on susceptibility to the hamster scrapie agent, we generated transgenic mice using a 1 kb hamster cDNA clone containing the 0.76 kb HPrP open reading frame under control of the neuron-specific enolase promoter. In these mice, expression of HPrP was detected only in brain tissue, with highest levels found in neurons of the cerebellum, hippocampus, thalamus, and cerebral cortex. These transgenic mice were susceptible to infection by the 263K strain of hamster scrapie with an average incubation period of 93 days, compared to 72 days in normal hamsters. In contrast, nontransgenic mice were not susceptible to this agent. These results indicate that neuron-specific expression of the 1 kb HPrP minigene including the HPrP open-reading frame is sufficient to mediate susceptibility to hamster scrapie, and that HPrP expression in nonneuronal brain cells is not necessary to overcome the TSE species barrier.

Influence of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines on the neuropathogenesis of oncornavirus and immunosuppressive lentivirus infections.

Retroviral infection of the CNS can lead to severe debilitating neurological diseases in humans and other animals. Four general types of pathogenic effects with various retroviruses have been observed including: hemorrhage (TR1.3), spongiform encephalopathy (CasBrE, FrCasE, PVC211, NT40, Mol-ts1), demyelination with inflammatory lesions (HTLV-1, visna, CAEV), and encephalopathy with gliosis and proinflammatory chemokines and cytokines, usually with microglial giant cells and nodules [human immunodeficiencyvirus (HIV), feline immunodeficiencyvirus (FIV), simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), Fr98]. This review focuses on this fourth group of retroviruses. In this latter group, proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine upregulation accompanies the disease process, and may influence pathogenesis by direct effects on resident CNS cells. The review first discusses the Fr98 murine polytropic virus system with particular reference to the roles of cytokines and chemokines in the pathogenic process. The Fr98 data are then compared and contrasted to the cytokine and chemokine data in the lentivirus systems, HIV, SIV, and FIV. Finally, various mechanisms are presented by which tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and several chemokines may alter the pathogenesis of retrovirus infection of the CNS.