PIEZO2 in somatosensory neurons controls gastrointestinal transit.

The gastrointestinal tract is in a state of constant motion. These movements are tightly regulated by the presence of food and help digestion by mechanically breaking down and propelling gut content. Mechanical sensing in the gut is thought to be essential for regulating motility; however, the identity of the neuronal populations, the molecules involved, and the functional consequences of this sensation are unknown. Here, we show that humans lacking PIEZO2 exhibit impaired bowel sensation and motility. Piezo2 in mouse dorsal root, but not nodose ganglia is required to sense gut content, and this activity slows down food transit rates in the stomach, small intestine, and colon. Indeed, Piezo2 is directly required to detect colon distension in vivo. Our study unveils the mechanosensory mechanisms that regulate the transit of luminal contents throughout the gut, which is a critical process to ensure proper digestion, nutrient absorption, and waste removal.

Immunity to the microbiota promotes sensory neuron regeneration.

Tissue immunity and responses to injury depend on the coordinated action and communication among physiological systems. Here, we show that, upon injury, adaptive responses to the microbiota directly promote sensory neuron regeneration. At homeostasis, tissue-resident commensal-specific T cells colocalize with sensory nerve fibers within the dermis, express a transcriptional program associated with neuronal interaction and repair, and promote axon growth and local nerve regeneration following injury. Mechanistically, our data reveal that the cytokine interleukin-17A (IL-17A) released by commensal-specific Th17 cells upon injury directly signals to sensory neurons via IL-17 receptor A, the transcription of which is specifically upregulated in injured neurons. Collectively, our work reveals that in the context of tissue damage, preemptive immunity to the microbiota can rapidly bridge biological systems by directly promoting neuronal repair, while also identifying IL-17A as a major determinant of this fundamental process.

The Form and Function of PIEZO2.

Mechanosensation is the ability to detect dynamic mechanical stimuli (e.g., pressure, stretch, and shear stress) and is essential for a wide variety of processes, including our sense of touch on the skin. How touch is detected and transduced at the molecular level has proved to be one of the great mysteries of sensory biology. A major breakthrough occurred in 2010 with the discovery of a family of mechanically gated ion channels that were coined PIEZOs. The last 10 years of investigation have provided a wealth of information about the functional roles and mechanisms of these molecules. Here we focus on PIEZO2, one of the two PIEZO proteins found in humans and other mammals. We review how work at the molecular, cellular, and systems levels over the past decade has transformed our understanding of touch and led to unexpected insights into other types of mechanosensation beyond the skin.

Acid Tongues Cause Sour Thoughts.

Animals use their sense of taste to evaluate the quality and safety of food before ingestion. In this issue of Cell, Zhang and colleagues provide a comprehensive exploration into the elusive mechanisms underlying sour detection.

PIEZO2 in sensory neurons and urothelial cells coordinates urination.

Henry Miller stated that "to relieve a full bladder is one of the great human joys". Urination is critically important in health and ailments of the lower urinary tract cause high pathological burden. Although there have been advances in understanding the central circuitry in the brain that facilitates urination1-3, there is a lack of in-depth mechanistic insight into the process. In addition to central control, micturition reflexes that govern urination are all initiated by peripheral mechanical stimuli such as bladder stretch and urethral flow4. The mechanotransduction molecules and cell types that function as the primary stretch and pressure detectors in the urinary tract mostly remain unknown. Here we identify expression of the mechanosensitive ion channel PIEZO2 in lower urinary tract tissues, where it is required for low-threshold bladder-stretch sensing and urethral micturition reflexes. We show that PIEZO2 acts as a sensor in both the bladder urothelium and innervating sensory neurons. Humans and mice lacking functional PIEZO2 have impaired bladder control, and humans lacking functional PIEZO2 report deficient bladder-filling sensation. This study identifies PIEZO2 as a key mechanosensor in urinary function. These findings set the foundation for future work to identify the interactions between urothelial cells and sensory neurons that control urination.

The Role of PIEZO2 in Human Mechanosensation.

BACKGROUND: The senses of touch and proprioception evoke a range of perceptions and rely on the ability to detect and transduce mechanical force. The molecular and neural mechanisms underlying these sensory functions remain poorly defined. The stretch-gated ion channel PIEZO2 has been shown to be essential for aspects of mechanosensation in model organisms. METHODS: We performed whole-exome sequencing analysis in two patients who had unique neuromuscular and skeletal symptoms, including progressive scoliosis, that did not conform to standard diagnostic classification. In vitro and messenger RNA assays, functional brain imaging, and psychophysical and kinematic tests were used to establish the effect of the genetic variants on protein function and somatosensation. RESULTS: Each patient carried compound-inactivating variants in PIEZO2, and each had a selective loss of discriminative touch perception but nevertheless responded to specific types of gentle mechanical stimulation on hairy skin. The patients had profoundly decreased proprioception leading to ataxia and dysmetria that were markedly worse in the absence of visual cues. However, they had the ability to perform a range of tasks, such as walking, talking, and writing, that are considered to rely heavily on proprioception. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that PIEZO2 is a determinant of mechanosensation in humans. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health Intramural Research Program.).

A heteromeric Texas coral snake toxin targets acid-sensing ion channels to produce pain.

Natural products that elicit discomfort or pain represent invaluable tools for probing molecular mechanisms underlying pain sensation. Plant-derived irritants have predominated in this regard, but animal venoms have also evolved to avert predators by targeting neurons and receptors whose activation produces noxious sensations. As such, venoms provide a rich and varied source of small molecule and protein pharmacophores that can be exploited to characterize and manipulate key components of the pain-signalling pathway. With this in mind, here we perform an unbiased in vitro screen to identify snake venoms capable of activating somatosensory neurons. Venom from the Texas coral snake (Micrurus tener tener), whose bite produces intense and unremitting pain, excites a large cohort of sensory neurons. The purified active species (MitTx) consists of a heteromeric complex between Kunitz- and phospholipase-A2-like proteins that together function as a potent, persistent and selective agonist for acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs), showing equal or greater efficacy compared with acidic pH. MitTx is highly selective for the ASIC1 subtype at neutral pH; under more acidic conditions (pH < 6.5), MitTx massively potentiates (>100-fold) proton-evoked activation of ASIC2a channels. These observations raise the possibility that ASIC channels function as coincidence detectors for extracellular protons and other, as yet unidentified, endogenous factors. Purified MitTx elicits robust pain-related behaviour in mice by activation of ASIC1 channels on capsaicin-sensitive nerve fibres. These findings reveal a mechanism whereby snake venoms produce pain, and highlight an unexpected contribution of ASIC1 channels to nociception.

Molecular basis of infrared detection by snakes.

Snakes possess a unique sensory system for detecting infrared radiation, enabling them to generate a 'thermal image' of predators or prey. Infrared signals are initially received by the pit organ, a highly specialized facial structure that is innervated by nerve fibres of the somatosensory system. How this organ detects and transduces infrared signals into nerve impulses is not known. Here we use an unbiased transcriptional profiling approach to identify TRPA1 channels as infrared receptors on sensory nerve fibres that innervate the pit organ. TRPA1 orthologues from pit-bearing snakes (vipers, pythons and boas) are the most heat-sensitive vertebrate ion channels thus far identified, consistent with their role as primary transducers of infrared stimuli. Thus, snakes detect infrared signals through a mechanism involving radiant heating of the pit organ, rather than photochemical transduction. These findings illustrate the broad evolutionary tuning of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels as thermosensors in the vertebrate nervous system.

Trigeminal innervation and tactile responses in mouse tongue.

The neural basis of tongue mechanosensation remains largely mysterious despite the tongue's high tactile acuity, sensitivity, and relevance to ethologically important functions. We studied terminal morphologies and tactile responses of lingual afferents from the trigeminal ganglion. Fungiform papillae, the taste-bud-holding structures in the tongue, were convergently innervated by multiple Piezo2+ trigeminal afferents, whereas single trigeminal afferents branched into multiple adjacent filiform papillae. In vivo single-unit recordings from the trigeminal ganglion revealed lingual low-threshold mechanoreceptors (LTMRs) with distinct tactile properties ranging from intermediately adapting (IA) to rapidly adapting (RA). The receptive fields of these LTMRs were mostly less than 0.1 mm2 and concentrated at the tip of the tongue, resembling the distribution of fungiform papillae. Our results indicate that fungiform papillae are mechanosensory structures and suggest a simple model that links functional and anatomical properties of tactile sensory neurons in the tongue.

Spatial Summation of Localized Pressure for Haptic Sensory Prostheses.

A host of medical conditions, including amputations, diabetes, stroke, and genetic disease, result in loss of touch sensation. Because most types of sensory loss have no pharmacological treatment or rehabilitative therapy, we propose a haptic sensory prosthesis that provides substitutive feedback. The wrist and forearm are compelling locations for feedback due to available skin area and not occluding the hands, but have reduced mechanoreceptor density compared to the fingertips. Focusing on localized pressure as the feedback modality, we hypothesize that we can improve on prior devices by invoking a wider range of stimulus intensity using multiple points of pressure to evoke spatial summation, which is the cumulative perceptual experience from multiple points of stimuli. We conducted a preliminary perceptual test to investigate this idea and found that just noticeable difference is reduced with two points of pressure compared to one, motivating future work using spatial summation in sensory prostheses.

Trigeminal ganglion neurons are directly activated by influx of CSF solutes in a migraine model.

Classical migraine patients experience aura, which is transient neurological deficits associated with cortical spreading depression (CSD), preceding headache attacks. It is not currently understood how a pathological event in cortex can affect peripheral sensory neurons. In this study, we show that cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flows into the trigeminal ganglion, establishing nonsynaptic signaling between brain and trigeminal cells. After CSD, ~11% of the CSF proteome is altered, with up-regulation of proteins that directly activate receptors in the trigeminal ganglion. CSF collected from animals exposed to CSD activates trigeminal neurons in naïve mice in part by CSF-borne calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP). We identify a communication pathway between the central and peripheral nervous system that might explain the relationship between migrainous aura and headache.

Painspotting.

How do we know an animal is feeling pain? In this issue of Neuron, Bohic et al.1 develop computational methods to detect pain in mice, shining a light on the behavioral changes that occur during pain, its relief, and recovery.

Trigeminal innervation and tactile responses in mouse tongue.

The mammalian tongue is richly innervated with somatosensory, gustatory and motor fibers. These form the basis of many ethologically important functions such as eating, speaking and social grooming. Despite its high tactile acuity and sensitivity, the neural basis of tongue mechanosensation remains largely mysterious. Here we explored the organization of mechanosensory afferents in the tongue and found that each lingual papilla is innervated by Piezo2 + trigeminal neurons. Notably, each fungiform papilla contained highly specialized ring-like sensory neuron terminations that circumscribe the taste buds. Myelinated lingual afferents in the mouse lingual papillae did not form corpuscular sensory end organs but rather had only free nerve endings. In vivo single-unit recordings from the trigeminal ganglion revealed two types of lingual low-threshold mechanoreceptors (LTMRs) with conduction velocities in the Aδ range or above and distinct response properties: intermediately adapting (IA) units and rapidly adapting (RA) units. IA units were sensitive to static indentation and stroking, while RA units had a preference for tangential forces applied by stroking. Lingual LTMRs were not directly responsive to rapid cooling or chemicals that can induce astringent or numbing sensations. Genetic labeling of lingual afferents in the tongue revealed at least two types of nerve terminal patterns, involving dense innervation of individual fungiform papillae by multiple putatively distinct afferents, and relatively sparse innervation of filiform papillae. Together, our results indicate that fungiform papillae are mechanosensory structures, while suggesting a simple model that links the functional and anatomical properties of tactile sensory neurons in the tongue.

Wearable Sensory Substitution for Proprioception via Deep Pressure.

We propose a sensory substitution device that communicates one-degree-of-freedom proprioceptive feedback via deep pressure stimulation on the arm. The design is motivated by the need for a feedback modality detectable by individuals with a genetic condition known as PIEZO2 loss of function, which is characterized by absence of both proprioception and sense of light touch. We created a wearable and programmable prototype that applies up to 15 N of deep pressure stimulation to the forearm and includes an embedded force sensor. We conducted a study to evaluate the ability of participants without sensory impairment to control the position of a virtual arm to match a target angle communicated by deep pressure stimulation. A participant-specific calibration resulted in an average minimum detectable force of 0.41 N and maximum comfortable force of 6.42 N. We found that, after training, participants were able to significantly reduce angle error using the deep pressure haptic feedback compared to without it. Angle error increased only slightly with force, indicating that this sensory substitution method is a promising approach for individuals with PIEZO2 loss of function and other forms of sensory loss.

PIEZO2 and perineal mechanosensation are essential for sexual function.

Despite the potential importance of genital mechanosensation for sexual reproduction, little is known about how perineal touch influences mating. We explored how mechanosensation affords exquisite awareness of the genitals and controls reproduction in mice and humans. Using genetic strategies and in vivo functional imaging, we demonstrated that the mechanosensitive ion channel PIEZO2 (piezo-type mechanosensitive ion channel component 2) is necessary for behavioral sensitivity to perineal touch. PIEZO2 function is needed for triggering a touch-evoked erection reflex and successful mating in both male and female mice. Humans with complete loss of PIEZO2 function have genital hyposensitivity and experience no direct pleasure from gentle touch or vibration. Together, our results help explain how perineal mechanoreceptors detect the gentlest of stimuli and trigger physiologically important sexual responses, thus providing a platform for exploring the sensory basis of sexual pleasure and its relationship to affective touch.

PIEZO2-dependent rapid pain system in humans and mice.

The PIEZO2 ion channel is critical for transducing light touch into neural signals but is not considered necessary for transducing acute pain in humans. Here, we discovered an exception - a form of mechanical pain evoked by hair pulling. Based on observations in a rare group of individuals with PIEZO2 deficiency syndrome, we demonstrated that hair-pull pain is dependent on PIEZO2 transduction. Studies in control participants showed that hair-pull pain triggered a distinct nocifensive response, including a nociceptive reflex. Observations in rare Aß deafferented individuals and nerve conduction block studies in control participants revealed that hair-pull pain perception is dependent on Aß input. Single-unit axonal recordings revealed that a class of cooling-responsive myelinated nociceptors in human skin is selectively tuned to painful hair-pull stimuli. Further, we pharmacologically mapped these nociceptors to a specific transcriptomic class. Finally, using functional imaging in mice, we demonstrated that in a homologous nociceptor, Piezo2 is necessary for high-sensitivity, robust activation by hair-pull stimuli. Together, we have demonstrated that hair-pulling evokes a distinct type of pain with conserved behavioral, neural, and molecular features across humans and mice.

Restriction of transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 to the peptidergic subset of primary afferent neurons follows its developmental downregulation in nonpeptidergic neurons.

Primary afferent "pain" fibers (nociceptors) are divided into subclasses based on distinct molecular and anatomical features, and these classes mediate noxious modality-specific contributions to behaviors evoked by painful stimuli. Whether the heat and capsaicin receptor transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) is expressed heterogeneously across several sensory populations, or is selectively expressed by a unique nociceptor subclass, however, is unclear. Here we used two lines of Trpv1 reporter mice to investigate the primary afferent expression of TRPV1, both during development and in the adult. We demonstrate, using Cre-induced lineage tracing, that during development TRPV1 is transiently expressed in a wide range of dorsal root ganglion neurons, and that its expression is gradually refined, such that TRPV1 transcripts become restricted to a specific subset of peptidergic sensory neurons. Finally, the remarkable sensitivity that is characteristic of these reporter mice revealed an innervation of central and peripheral targets by TRPV1+ primary afferents in the adult that is considerably more extensive than has previously been appreciated.

Trpv1 reporter mice reveal highly restricted brain distribution and functional expression in arteriolar smooth muscle cells.

The heat and capsaicin receptor, TRPV1, is required for the detection of painful heat by primary afferent pain fibers (nociceptors), but the extent to which functional TRPV1 channels are expressed in the CNS is debated. Because previous evidence is based primarily on indirect physiological responses to capsaicin, here we genetically modified the Trpv1 locus to reveal, with excellent sensitivity and specificity, the distribution of TRPV1 in all neuronal and non-neuronal tissues. In contrast to reports of widespread and robust expression in the CNS, we find that neuronal TRPV1 is primarily restricted to nociceptors in primary sensory ganglia, with minimal expression in a few discrete brain regions, most notably in a contiguous band of cells within and adjacent to the caudal hypothalamus. We confirm hypothalamic expression in the mouse using several complementary approaches, including in situ hybridization, calcium imaging, and electrophysiological recordings. Additional in situ hybridization experiments in rat, monkey, and human brain demonstrate that the restricted expression of TRPV1 in the CNS is conserved across species. Outside of the CNS, we find TRPV1 expression in a subset of arteriolar smooth muscle cells within thermoregulatory tissues. Here, capsaicin increases calcium uptake and induces vasoconstriction, an effect that likely counteracts the vasodilation produced by activation of neuronal TRPV1.

PIEZO2 ion channels in proprioception.

PIEZO2 is a stretch-gated ion channel that is expressed at high levels in somatosensory neurons. Humans with rare mutations in the PIEZO2 gene have profound mechanosensory deficits that include a loss of the sense of proprioception. These striking phenotypes match those seen in conditional knockout mouse models demonstrating the highly conserved function for this gene. Here, we review the ramifications of loss of PIEZO2 function on normal daily activities and what studies like these have revealed about proprioception at the molecular and cellular level. Additionally, we highlight recent work that has uncovered the surprising functional and molecular diversity of proprioceptors. Together, these findings pioneer a path toward determining how the detection of mechanosensory input from muscles and tendons is used to control posture and refine motor performance.

Human Stem Cell-Derived TRPV1-Positive Sensory Neurons: A New Tool to Study Mechanisms of Sensitization.

Somatosensation, the detection and transduction of external and internal stimuli such as temperature or mechanical force, is vital to sustaining our bodily integrity. But still, some of the mechanisms of distinct stimuli detection and transduction are not entirely understood, especially when noxious perception turns into chronic pain. Over the past decade major progress has increased our understanding in areas such as mechanotransduction or sensory neuron classification. However, it is in particular the access to human pluripotent stem cells and the possibility of generating and studying human sensory neurons that has enriched the somatosensory research field. Based on our previous work, we describe here the generation of human stem cell-derived nociceptor-like cells. We show that by varying the differentiation strategy, we can produce different nociceptive subpopulations with different responsiveness to nociceptive stimuli such as capsaicin. Functional as well as deep sequencing analysis demonstrated that one protocol in particular allowed the generation of a mechano-nociceptive sensory neuron population, homogeneously expressing TRPV1. Accordingly, we find the cells to homogenously respond to capsaicin, to become sensitized upon inflammatory stimuli, and to respond to temperature stimulation. The efficient and homogenous generation of these neurons make them an ideal translational tool to study mechanisms of sensitization, also in the context of chronic pain.