Nucleo-cytoplasmic Partitioning of ARF Proteins Controls Auxin Responses in Arabidopsis thaliana.

The phytohormone auxin plays crucial roles in nearly every aspect of plant growth and development. The auxin response factor (ARF) transcription factor family regulates auxin-responsive gene expression and exhibits nuclear localization in regions of high auxin responsiveness. Here we show that the ARF7 and ARF19 proteins accumulate in micron-sized assemblies within the cytoplasm of tissues with attenuated auxin responsiveness. We found that the intrinsically disordered middle region and the folded PB1 interaction domain of ARFs drive protein assembly formation. Mutation of a single lysine within the PB1 domain abrogates cytoplasmic assemblies, promotes ARF nuclear localization, and results in an altered transcriptome and morphological defects. Our data suggest a model in which ARF nucleo-cytoplasmic partitioning regulates auxin responsiveness, providing a mechanism for cellular competence for auxin signaling.

The class VIII myosin ATM1 is required for root apical meristem function.

Myosins are evolutionarily conserved motor proteins that interact with actin filaments to regulate organelle transport, cytoplasmic streaming and cell growth. Plant-specific class XI myosin proteins direct cell division and root organogenesis. However, the roles of plant-specific class VIII myosin proteins in plant growth and development are less understood. Here, we investigated the function of an auxin-regulated class VIII myosin, Arabidopsis thaliana MYOSIN 1 (ATM1), using genetics, transcriptomics and live cell microscopy. ATM1 is associated with the plasma membrane and plasmodesmata within the root apical meristem (RAM). Loss of ATM1 function results in decreased RAM size and reduced cell proliferation in a sugar-dependent manner. Auxin signaling and transcriptional responses were dampened in atm1-1 roots. Complementation of atm1-1 with a tagged ATM1 driven under the native ATM1 promoter restored root growth and cell cycle progression. Genetic analyses of atm1-1 seedlings with HEXOKINASE 1 (HXK1) and TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN COMPLEX 1 (TORC1) overexpression lines indicate that ATM1 is downstream of TOR. Collectively, these results provide previously unreported evidence that ATM1 functions to influence cell proliferation in primary roots in response to auxin and sugar cues.

Phosphorylation Dynamics in a flg22-Induced, G Protein-Dependent Network Reveals the AtRGS1 Phosphatase.

The microbe-associated molecular pattern flg22 is recognized in a flagellin-sensitive 2-dependent manner in root tip cells. Here, we show a rapid and massive change in protein abundance and phosphorylation state of the Arabidopsis root cell proteome in WT and a mutant deficient in heterotrimeric G-protein-coupled signaling. flg22-induced changes fall on proteins comprising a subset of this proteome, the heterotrimeric G protein interactome, and on highly-populated hubs of the immunity network. Approximately 95% of the phosphorylation changes in the heterotrimeric G-protein interactome depend, at least partially, on a functional G protein complex. One member of this interactome is ATBα, a substrate-recognition subunit of a protein phosphatase 2A complex and an interactor to Arabidopsis thaliana Regulator of G Signaling 1 protein (AtRGS1), a flg22-phosphorylated, 7-transmembrane spanning modulator of the nucleotide-binding state of the core G-protein complex. A null mutation of ATBα strongly increases basal endocytosis of AtRGS1. AtRGS1 steady-state protein level is lower in the atbα mutant in a proteasome-dependent manner. We propose that phosphorylation-dependent endocytosis of AtRGS1 is part of the mechanism to degrade AtRGS1, thus sustaining activation of the heterotrimeric G protein complex required for the regulation of system dynamics in innate immunity. The PP2A(ATBα) complex is a critical regulator of this signaling pathway.

Integrated omics reveal novel functions and underlying mechanisms of the receptor kinase FERONIA in Arabidopsis thaliana.

The receptor kinase FERONIA (FER) is a versatile regulator of plant growth and development, biotic and abiotic stress responses, and reproduction. To gain new insights into the molecular interplay of these processes and to identify new FER functions, we carried out quantitative transcriptome, proteome, and phosphoproteome profiling of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) wild-type and fer-4 loss-of-function mutant plants. Gene ontology terms for phytohormone signaling, abiotic stress, and biotic stress were significantly enriched among differentially expressed transcripts, differentially abundant proteins, and/or misphosphorylated proteins, in agreement with the known roles for FER in these processes. Analysis of multiomics data and subsequent experimental evidence revealed previously unknown functions for FER in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) body formation and glucosinolate biosynthesis. FER functions through the transcription factor NAI1 to mediate ER body formation. FER also negatively regulates indole glucosinolate biosynthesis, partially through NAI1. Furthermore, we found that a group of abscisic acid (ABA)-induced transcription factors is hypophosphorylated in the fer-4 mutant and demonstrated that FER acts through the transcription factor ABA INSENSITIVE5 (ABI5) to negatively regulate the ABA response during cotyledon greening. Our integrated omics study, therefore, reveals novel functions for FER and provides new insights into the underlying mechanisms of FER function.

The F-box E3 ubiquitin ligase BAF1 mediates the degradation of the brassinosteroid-activated transcription factor BES1 through selective autophagy in Arabidopsis.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) regulate plant growth, development, and stress responses by activating the core transcription factor BRI1-EMS-SUPPRESSOR1 (BES1), whose degradation occurs through the proteasome and autophagy pathways. The E3 ubiquitin ligase(s) that modify BES1 for autophagy-mediated degradation remain to be fully defined. Here, we identified an F-box family E3 ubiquitin ligase named BES1-ASSOCIATED F-BOX1 (BAF1) in Arabidopsis thaliana. BAF1 interacts with BES1 and mediates its ubiquitination and degradation. Our genetic data demonstrated that BAF1 inhibits BR signaling in a BES1-dependent manner. Moreover, BAF1 targets BES1 for autophagic degradation in a selective manner. BAF1-triggered selective autophagy of BES1 depends on the ubiquitin binding receptor DOMINANT SUPPRESSOR OF KAR2 (DSK2). Sucrose starvation-induced selective autophagy of BES1, but not bulk autophagy, was significantly compromised in baf1 mutant and BAF1-ΔF (BAF1 F-box decoy) overexpression plants, but clearly increased by BAF1 overexpression. The baf1 and BAF1-ΔF overexpression plants had increased BR-regulated growth but were sensitive to long-term sucrose starvation, while BAF1 overexpression plants had decreased BR-regulated growth but were highly tolerant of sucrose starvation. Our results not only established BAF1 as an E3 ubiquitin ligase that targets BES1 for degradation through selective autophagy pathway, but also revealed a mechanism for plants to reduce growth during sucrose starvation.

An Arabidopsis pre-RNA processing8a (prp8a) missense allele restores splicing of a subset of mis-spliced mRNAs.

Eukaryotic precursor mRNAs often harbor noncoding introns that must be removed prior to translation. Accurate splicing of precursor messenger RNA depends on placement and assembly of small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) sub-complexes of the spliceosome. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) studies established a role in splice-site selection for PRE-RNA PROCESSING8 (PRP8), a conserved spliceosome scaffolding protein of the U5 snRNP. However, analogous splice-site selection studies in multicellular eukaryotes are lacking. Such studies are crucial for a comprehensive understanding of alternative splicing, which is extensive in plants and animals but limited in yeast. In this work, we describe an Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) prp8a mutant that modulates splice-site selection. We isolated prp8a-14 from a screen for suppressors of pex14-6, which carries a splice-site mutation in the PEROXIN14 (PEX14) peroxisome biogenesis gene. To elucidate Arabidopsis PRP8A function in spliceosome fidelity, we combined prp8a-14 with various pex14 splice-site mutations and monitored the double mutants for physiological and molecular consequences of dysfunctional and functional peroxisomes that correspond to impaired and recovered splicing, respectively. prp8a-14 restored splicing and PEX14 function to alleles with mutations in the exonic guanine of the 5'-splice site but did not restore splicing or function to alleles with mutations in the intronic guanine of 5'- or 3'-splice sites. We used RNA-seq to reveal the systemic impact of prp8a-14 and found hundreds of differentially spliced transcripts and thousands of transcripts with significantly altered levels. Among differentially spliced transcripts, prp8a-14 significantly altered 5'- and 3'-splice-site utilization to favor sites resulting in shorter introns. This study provides a genetic platform for probing splicing in plants and hints at a role for plant PRP8 in splice-site selection.

POPEYE intercellular localization mediates cell-specific iron deficiency responses.

Plants must tightly regulate iron (Fe) sensing, acquisition, transport, mobilization, and storage to ensure sufficient levels of this essential micronutrient. POPEYE (PYE) is an iron responsive transcription factor that positively regulates the iron deficiency response, while also repressing genes essential for maintaining iron homeostasis. However, little is known about how PYE plays such contradictory roles. Under iron-deficient conditions, pPYE:GFP accumulates in the root pericycle while pPYE:PYE-GFP is localized to the nucleus in all Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) root cells, suggesting that PYE may have cell-specific dynamics and functions. Using scanning fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and cell-specific promoters, we found that PYE-GFP moves between different cells and that the tendency for movement corresponds with transcript abundance. While localization to the cortex, endodermis, and vasculature is required to manage changes in iron availability, vasculature and endodermis localization of PYE-GFP protein exacerbated pye-1 defects and elicited a host of transcriptional changes that are detrimental to iron mobilization. Our findings indicate that PYE acts as a positive regulator of iron deficiency response by regulating iron bioavailability differentially across cells, which may trigger iron uptake from the surrounding rhizosphere and impact root energy metabolism.

BAM1/2 receptor kinase signaling drives CLE peptide-mediated formative cell divisions in Arabidopsis roots.

Cell division is often regulated by extracellular signaling networks to ensure correct patterning during development. In Arabidopsis, the SHORT-ROOT (SHR)/SCARECROW (SCR) transcription factor dimer activates CYCLIND6;1 (CYCD6;1) to drive formative divisions during root ground tissue development. Here, we show plasma-membrane-localized BARELY ANY MERISTEM1/2 (BAM1/2) family receptor kinases are required for SHR-dependent formative divisions and CYCD6;1 expression, but not SHR-dependent ground tissue specification. Root-enriched CLE ligands bind the BAM1 extracellular domain and are necessary and sufficient to activate SHR-mediated divisions and CYCD6;1 expression. Correspondingly, BAM-CLE signaling contributes to the restriction of formative divisions to the distal root region. Additionally, genetic analysis reveals that BAM-CLE and SHR converge to regulate additional cell divisions outside of the ground tissues. Our work identifies an extracellular signaling pathway regulating formative root divisions and provides a framework to explore this pathway in patterning and evolution.

Protein complex stoichiometry and expression dynamics of transcription factors modulate stem cell division.

Stem cells divide and differentiate to form all of the specialized cell types in a multicellular organism. In the Arabidopsis root, stem cells are maintained in an undifferentiated state by a less mitotically active population of cells called the quiescent center (QC). Determining how the QC regulates the surrounding stem cell initials, or what makes the QC fundamentally different from the actively dividing initials, is important for understanding how stem cell divisions are maintained. Here we gained insight into the differences between the QC and the cortex endodermis initials (CEI) by studying the mobile transcription factor SHORTROOT (SHR) and its binding partner SCARECROW (SCR). We constructed an ordinary differential equation model of SHR and SCR in the QC and CEI which incorporated the stoichiometry of the SHR-SCR complex as well as upstream transcriptional regulation of SHR and SCR. Our model prediction, coupled with experimental validation, showed that high levels of the SHR-SCR complex are associated with more CEI division but less QC division. Furthermore, our model prediction allowed us to propose the putative upstream SHR regulators SEUSS and WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX 5 and to experimentally validate their roles in QC and CEI division. In addition, our model established the timing of QC and CEI division and suggests that SHR repression of QC division depends on formation of the SHR homodimer. Thus, our results support that SHR-SCR protein complex stoichiometry and regulation of SHR transcription modulate the division timing of two different specialized cell types in the root stem cell niche.

Integration of multi-omics data reveals interplay between brassinosteroid and Target of Rapamycin Complex signaling in Arabidopsis.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) and Target of Rapamycin Complex (TORC) are two major actors coordinating plant growth and stress responses. Brassinosteroids function through a signaling pathway to extensively regulate gene expression and TORC is known to regulate translation and autophagy. Recent studies have revealed connections between these two pathways, but a system-wide view of their interplay is still missing. We quantified the level of 23 975 transcripts, 11 183 proteins, and 27 887 phosphorylation sites in wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana and in mutants with altered levels of either BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE 2 (BIN2) or REGULATORY ASSOCIATED PROTEIN OF TOR 1B (RAPTOR1B), two key players in BR and TORC signaling, respectively. We found that perturbation of BIN2 or RAPTOR1B levels affects a common set of gene-products involved in growth and stress responses. Furthermore, we used the multi-omic data to reconstruct an integrated signaling network. We screened 41 candidate genes identified from the reconstructed network and found that loss of function mutants of many of these proteins led to an altered BR response and/or modulated autophagy activity. Altogether, these results establish a predictive network that defines different layers of molecular interactions between BR- or TORC-regulated growth and autophagy.

tuxnet: a simple interface to process RNA sequencing data and infer gene regulatory networks.

Predicting gene regulatory networks (GRNs) from expression profiles is a common approach for identifying important biological regulators. Despite the increased use of inference methods, existing computational approaches often do not integrate RNA-sequencing data analysis, are not automated or are restricted to users with bioinformatics backgrounds. To address these limitations, we developed tuxnet, a user-friendly platform that can process raw RNA-sequencing data from any organism with an existing reference genome using a modified tuxedo pipeline (hisat 2 + cufflinks package) and infer GRNs from these processed data. tuxnet is implemented as a graphical user interface and can mine gene regulations, either by applying a dynamic Bayesian network (DBN) inference algorithm, genist, or a regression tree-based pipeline, rtp-star. We obtained time-course expression data of a PERIANTHIA (PAN) inducible line and inferred a GRN using genist to illustrate the use of tuxnet while gaining insight into the regulations downstream of the Arabidopsis root stem cell regulator PAN. Using rtp-star, we inferred the network of ATHB13, a downstream gene of PAN, for which we obtained wild-type and mutant expression profiles. Additionally, we generated two networks using temporal data from developmental leaf data and spatial data from root cell-type data to highlight the use of tuxnet to form new testable hypotheses from previously explored data. Our case studies feature the versatility of tuxnet when using different types of gene expression data to infer networks and its accessibility as a pipeline for non-bioinformaticians to analyze transcriptome data, predict causal regulations, assess network topology and identify key regulators.

GTL1 and DF1 regulate root hair growth through transcriptional repression of ROOT HAIR DEFECTIVE 6-LIKE 4 in Arabidopsis.

How plants determine the final size of growing cells is an important, yet unresolved, issue. Root hairs provide an excellent model system with which to study this as their final cell size is remarkably constant under constant environmental conditions. Previous studies have demonstrated that a basic helix-loop helix transcription factor ROOT HAIR DEFECTIVE 6-LIKE 4 (RSL4) promotes root hair growth, but how hair growth is terminated is not known. In this study, we demonstrate that a trihelix transcription factor GT-2-LIKE1 (GTL1) and its homolog DF1 repress root hair growth in Arabidopsis Our transcriptional data, combined with genome-wide chromatin-binding data, show that GTL1 and DF1 directly bind the RSL4 promoter and regulate its expression to repress root hair growth. Our data further show that GTL1 and RSL4 regulate each other, as well as a set of common downstream genes, many of which have previously been implicated in root hair growth. This study therefore uncovers a core regulatory module that fine-tunes the extent of root hair growth by the orchestrated actions of opposing transcription factors.

Predicting gene regulatory networks by combining spatial and temporal gene expression data in Arabidopsis root stem cells.

Identifying the transcription factors (TFs) and associated networks involved in stem cell regulation is essential for understanding the initiation and growth of plant tissues and organs. Although many TFs have been shown to have a role in the Arabidopsis root stem cells, a comprehensive view of the transcriptional signature of the stem cells is lacking. In this work, we used spatial and temporal transcriptomic data to predict interactions among the genes involved in stem cell regulation. To accomplish this, we transcriptionally profiled several stem cell populations and developed a gene regulatory network inference algorithm that combines clustering with dynamic Bayesian network inference. We leveraged the topology of our networks to infer potential major regulators. Specifically, through mathematical modeling and experimental validation, we identified PERIANTHIA (PAN) as an important molecular regulator of quiescent center function. The results presented in this work show that our combination of molecular biology, computational biology, and mathematical modeling is an efficient approach to identify candidate factors that function in the stem cells.

Auxin Induces Widespread Proteome Remodeling in Arabidopsis Seedlings.

It is known that auxin induces rapid gene expression changes throughout plant development, but how these transcriptional responses relate to changes in protein abundance is not well characterized. This report identifies early auxin responsive proteins in whole Arabidopsis seedlings using an isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification-based quantitative proteomics approach. Approximately 25% of the detected proteins (1045 out of 4257 proteins) are auxin responsive, which is in line with the central role of auxin in the regulation of plant growth and development. Several well-known auxin pathway proteins are identified as differentially expressed, validating this quantitative proteomics approach. Additionally, functional categorization of these auxin responsive proteins indicates that rapid and complex metabolic changes occur in seedlings in response to auxin, including lipid metabolism. Altogether, these data describe novel auxin-regulated proteins and are an excellent resource for identifying new downstream signaling components related to auxin-mediated plant growth and development.

Automated single-cell proteomics providing sufficient proteome depth to study complex biology beyond cell type classifications.

Mass spectrometry (MS)-based single-cell proteomics (SCP) has gained massive attention as a viable complement to other single cell approaches. The rapid technological and computational advances in the field have pushed the boundaries of sensitivity and throughput. However, reproducible quantification of thousands of proteins within a single cell at reasonable proteome depth to characterize biological phenomena remains a challenge. To address some of those limitations we present a combination of fully automated single cell sample preparation utilizing a dedicated chip within the picolitre dispensing robot, the cellenONE. The proteoCHIP EVO 96 can be directly interfaced with the Evosep One chromatographic system for in-line desalting and highly reproducible separation with a throughput of 80 samples per day. This, in combination with the Bruker timsTOF MS instruments, demonstrates double the identifications without manual sample handling. Moreover, relative to standard high-performance liquid chromatography, the Evosep One separation provides further 2-fold improvement in protein identifications. The implementation of the newest generation timsTOF Ultra with our proteoCHIP EVO 96-based sample preparation workflow reproducibly identifies up to 4,000 proteins per single HEK-293T without a carrier or match-between runs. Our current SCP depth spans over 4 orders of magnitude and identifies over 50 biologically relevant ubiquitin ligases. We complement our highly reproducible single-cell proteomics workflow to profile hundreds of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-perturbed THP-1 cells and identified key regulatory proteins involved in interleukin and interferon signaling. This study demonstrates that the proteoCHIP EVO 96-based SCP sample preparation with the timsTOF Ultra provides sufficient proteome depth to study complex biology beyond cell-type classifications.

A Practical Guide to Inferring Multi-Omics Networks in Plant Systems.

The inference of gene regulatory networks can reveal molecular connections underlying biological processes and improve our understanding of complex biological phenomena in plants. Many previous network studies have inferred networks using only one type of omics data, such as transcriptomics. However, given more recent work applying multi-omics integration in plant biology, such as combining (phospho)proteomics with transcriptomics, it may be advantageous to integrate multiple omics data types into a comprehensive network prediction. Here, we describe a state-of-the-art approach for integrating multi-omics data with gene regulatory network inference to describe signaling pathways and uncover novel regulators. We detail how to download and process transcriptomics and (phospho)proteomics data for network inference, using an example dataset from the plant hormone signaling field. We provide a step-by-step protocol for inference, visualization, and analysis of an integrative multi-omics network using currently available methods. This chapter serves as an accessible guide for novice and intermediate bioinformaticians to analyze their own datasets and reanalyze published work.

Transcription Factor Dynamics in Cross-Regulation of Plant Hormone Signaling Pathways.

Cross-regulation between hormone signaling pathways is indispensable for plant growth and development. However, the molecular mechanisms by which multiple hormones interact and co-ordinate activity need to be understood. Here, we generated a cross-regulation network explaining how hormone signals are integrated from multiple pathways in etiolated Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) seedlings. To do so we comprehensively characterized transcription factor activity during plant hormone responses and reconstructed dynamic transcriptional regulatory models for six hormones; abscisic acid, brassinosteroid, ethylene, jasmonic acid, salicylic acid and strigolactone/karrikin. These models incorporated target data for hundreds of transcription factors and thousands of protein-protein interactions. Each hormone recruited different combinations of transcription factors, a subset of which were shared between hormones. Hub target genes existed within hormone transcriptional networks, exhibiting transcription factor activity themselves. In addition, a group of MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASES (MPKs) were identified as potential key points of cross-regulation between multiple hormones. Accordingly, the loss of function of one of these (MPK6) disrupted the global proteome, phosphoproteome and transcriptome during hormone responses. Lastly, we determined that all hormones drive substantial alternative splicing that has distinct effects on the transcriptome compared with differential gene expression, acting in early hormone responses. These results provide a comprehensive understanding of the common features of plant transcriptional regulatory pathways and how cross-regulation between hormones acts upon gene expression.

FERONIA functions through Target of Rapamycin (TOR) to negatively regulate autophagy.

FERONIA (FER) receptor kinase plays versatile roles in plant growth and development, biotic and abiotic stress responses, and reproduction. Autophagy is a conserved cellular recycling process that is critical for balancing plant growth and stress responses. Target of Rapamycin (TOR) has been shown to be a master regulator of autophagy. Our previous multi-omics analysis with loss-of-function fer-4 mutant implicated that FER functions in the autophagy pathway. We further demonstrated here that the fer-4 mutant displayed constitutive autophagy, and FER is required for TOR kinase activity measured by S6K1 phosphorylation and by root growth inhibition assay to TOR kinase inhibitor AZD8055. Taken together, our study provides a previously unknown mechanism by which FER functions through TOR to negatively regulate autophagy.

Integrated omics networks reveal the temporal signaling events of brassinosteroid response in Arabidopsis.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are plant steroid hormones that regulate cell division and stress response. Here we use a systems biology approach to integrate multi-omic datasets and unravel the molecular signaling events of BR response in Arabidopsis. We profile the levels of 26,669 transcripts, 9,533 protein groups, and 26,617 phosphorylation sites from Arabidopsis seedlings treated with brassinolide (BL) for six different lengths of time. We then construct a network inference pipeline called Spatiotemporal Clustering and Inference of Omics Networks (SC-ION) to integrate these data. We use our network predictions to identify putative phosphorylation sites on BES1 and experimentally validate their importance. Additionally, we identify BRONTOSAURUS (BRON) as a transcription factor that regulates cell division, and we show that BRON expression is modulated by BR-responsive kinases and transcription factors. This work demonstrates the power of integrative network analysis applied to multi-omic data and provides fundamental insights into the molecular signaling events occurring during BR response.