«La Chimie en Couleurs¼: Socially Relevant & Original Research in Chemistry in High Schools Using Modest Resources.

Teaching chemistry at high school level has the potential of playing a major role for the development of our society, in particular, to form future leaders in chemistry who will address social challenges such as the need for better healthcare, improved agricultural techniques and more efficient use of energy resources. In general, high school chemistry teaching programs tend to illustrate the great historic discoveries and glorious past of chemical research. It is hoped that this historical perspective will help to provide students with the basic understanding necessary for the development of the chemistry of tomorrow. Unfortunately, in general, the emphasis on established chemical research and on the reassuringly solid foundations of the field is ubiquitous, not only in the theoretical classes, but also in more practical aspects of teaching, such as in the 'maturity projects' of students: These small, often laboratory-oriented 'research projects' are generally limited to reproducing the scientific literature - often printed in black & white - and/or are adding minor modifications to established scientific protocols, instead of exploring the colourful world of current scientific discoveries and the excitement of pushing back the boundaries of knowledge. Practicing innovative and original research with chemistry students is therefore a challenge for the mentor of any 'maturity project'. Here, we describe the implementation of a practical program - nicknamed 'La Chimie en Couleurs' - for carrying out original research in chemistry, making science lively, colourful and vivid to students. Science that has not already been done by others before, but that students can pursue themselves and that is totally new and original. The program is taught during high-school courses and carried out by students, using inexpensive equipment, easily accessible and non-toxic chemicals and simple chemical concepts. Part of the research work was presented by students at the Swiss Chemical Society Fall Meeting and won a poster prize in the inorganic chemistry runner up category (2016). The 'La Chimie en Couleurs' program presented here shows that up-to-date and socially-relevant chemistry (not just historically relevant chemistry!) can be taught to teenagers in a creative way through the implementation of inexpensive, albeit serious, scientific research at high school level.

MED20 mutation associated with infantile basal ganglia degeneration and brain atrophy.

UNLABELLED: Infantile movement disorders are rare and genetically heterogeneous. We set out to identify the disease-causing mutation in siblings with a novel recessive neurodegenerative movement disorder. Genetic linkage analysis and whole-exome sequencing were performed in the original family. A cohort of six unrelated patients were sequenced for further mutations in the identified candidate gene. Pathogenicity of the mutation was evaluated by in silico analyses and by structural modeling. We identified the first and homozygous mutation (p.Gly114Ala) in the Mediator subunit 20 gene (MED20) in siblings presenting with infantile-onset spasticity and childhood-onset dystonia, progressive basal ganglia degeneration, and brain atrophy. Mediator refers to an evolutionarily conserved multi-subunit RNA polymerase II co-regulatory complex. Pathogenicity of the identified missense mutation is suggested by in silico analyses, by structural modeling, and by previous reporting of mutations in four distinct Mediator subunits causing neurodegenerative phenotypes. No further MED20 mutations were detected in this study. CONCLUSION: We delineate a novel infantile-onset neurodegenerative movement disorder and emphasize the Mediator complex as critical for normal neuronal function. Definitive proof of pathogenicity of the identified MED20 mutation will require confirmation in unrelated patients.

Reversible biofunctionalization of surfaces with a switchable mutant of avidin.

Label-free biosensors detect binding of prey molecules (″analytes″) to immobile bait molecules on the sensing surface. Numerous methods are available for immobilization of bait molecules. A convenient option is binding of biotinylated bait molecules to streptavidin-functionalized surfaces, or to biotinylated surfaces via biotin-avidin-biotin bridges. The goal of this study was to find a rapid method for reversible immobilization of biotinylated bait molecules on biotinylated sensor chips. The task was to establish a biotin-avidin-biotin bridge which was easily cleaved when desired, yet perfectly stable under a wide range of measurement conditions. The problem was solved with the avidin mutant M96H which contains extra histidine residues at the subunit-subunit interfaces. This mutant was bound to a mixed self-assembled monolayer (SAM) containing biotin residues on 20% of the oligo(ethylene glycol)-terminated SAM components. Various biotinylated bait molecules were bound on top of the immobilized avidin mutant. The biotin-avidin-biotin bridge was stable at pH ≥3, and it was insensitive to sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) at neutral pH. Only the combination of citric acid (2.5%, pH 2) and SDS (0.25%) caused instantaneous cleavage of the biotin-avidin-biotin bridge. As a consequence, the biotinylated bait molecules could be immobilized and removed as often as desired, the only limit being the time span for reproducible chip function when kept in buffer (2-3 weeks at 25 °C). As expected, the high isolectric pH (pI) of the avidin mutant caused nonspecific adsorption of proteins. This problem was solved by acetylation of avidin (to pI < 5), or by optimization of SAM formation and passivation with biotin-BSA and BSA.

Burkavidin: a novel secreted biotin-binding protein from the human pathogen Burkholderia pseudomallei.

The avidin-biotin technology has many applications, including molecular detection; immobilization; protein purification; construction of supramolecular assemblies and artificial metalloenzymes. Here we present the recombinant expression of novel biotin-binding proteins from bacteria and the purification and characterization of a secreted burkavidin from the human pathogen Burkholderia pseudomallei. Expression of the native burkavidin in Escherichia coli led to periplasmic secretion and formation of a biotin-binding, thermostable, tetrameric protein containing an intra-monomeric disulphide bond. Burkavidin showed one main species as measured by isoelectric focusing, with lower isoelectric point (pI) than streptavidin. To exemplify the potential use of burkavidin in biotechnology, an artificial metalloenzyme was generated using this novel protein-scaffold and shown to exhibit enantioselectivity in a rhodium-catalysed hydrogenation reaction.

Selectivity of Inhibition of N-Succinyl-l,l-Diaminopimelic Acid Desuccinylase in Bacteria: The product of dapE-gene Is Not the Target of l-Captopril Antimicrobial Activity.

The emergence of bacterial strains that are resistant to virtually all currently available antibiotics underscores the importance of developing new antimicrobial compounds. N-succinyl-l,l-diaminopimelic acid desuccinylase (DapE) is a metallohydrolase involved in the meso-diaminopimelate (mDAP)/lysine biosynthetic pathway necessary for lysine biosynthesis and for building the peptidoglycan cell wall. Because DapE is essential for Gram-negative and some Gram-positive bacteria, DapE has been proposed as a good target for antibiotic development. Recently, l-captopril has been suggested as a lead compound for inhibition of DapE, although its selectivity for this enzyme target in bacteria remains unclear (Gillner et al. (2009)). Here, we tested the selectivity of l-captopril against DapE in bacteria. Since DapE knockout strains of gram-negative bacteria are viable upon chemical supplementation with mDAP, we reasoned that the antimicrobial activity of compounds targeting DapE should be abolished in mDAP-containing media. Although l-captopril had modest antimicrobial activity in Escherichia coli and in Salmonella enterica, to our surprise, inhibition of bacterial growth was independent both of mDAP supplementation and DapE over-expression. We conclude that DapE is not the main target of l-captopril inhibition in these bacteria. The methods implemented here will be useful for screening DapE-selective antimicrobial compounds directly in bacterial cultures.

Hepatic but not brain iron is rapidly chelated by deferasirox in aceruloplasminemia due to a novel gene mutation.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Aceruloplasminemia is a rare autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disease associated with brain and liver iron accumulation which typically presents with movement disorders, retinal degeneration, and diabetes mellitus. Ceruloplasmin is a multi-copper ferroxidase that is secreted into plasma and facilitates cellular iron export and iron binding to transferrin. RESULTS: A novel homozygous ceruloplasmin gene mutation, c.2554+1G>T, was identified as the cause of aceruloplasminemia in three affected siblings. Two siblings presented with movement disorders and diabetes. Complementary DNA sequencing showed that this mutation causes skipping of exon 14 and deletion of amino acids 809-852 while preserving the open reading frame. Western blotting of liver extracts and sera of affected patients showed retention of the abnormal protein in the liver. Aceruloplasminemia was associated with severe brain and liver iron overload, where hepatic mRNA expression of the iron hormone hepcidin was increased, corresponding to the degree of iron overload. Hepatic iron concentration normalized after 3 and 5months of iron chelation therapy with deferasirox, which was also associated with reduced insulin demands. During short term treatment there was no clinical or imaging evidence for significant effects on brain iron overload. CONCLUSIONS: Aceruloplasminemia can show an incomplete clinical penetrance but is invariably associated with iron accumulation in the liver and in the brain. Iron accumulation in aceruloplasminemia is a result of defective cellular iron export, where hepcidin regulation is appropriate for the degree of iron overload. Iron chelation with deferasirox was effective in mobilizing hepatic iron but has no effect on brain iron.

Chemo-genetic optimization of DNA recognition by metallodrugs using a presenter-protein strategy.

The mode of action of precious metal anticancer metallodrugs is generally believed to involve DNA as a target. However, the poor specificity of such drugs often requires high doses and leads to undesirable side-effects. With the aim of improving the specificity of a ruthenium piano-stool complex towards DNA, we employed a presenter protein strategy based on the biotin-avidin technology. Guided by the X-ray structure of the assembly of streptavidin and a biotinylated piano-stool, we explored the formation of metallodrug-mediated ternary complexes with the presenter protein and DNA. The assemblies bound more strongly to telomere G-quadruplexes than to double-stranded DNA; chemo-genetic modifications (varying the complex or mutating the protein) modulated binding to these targets. We suggest that rational targeting of small molecules by presenter proteins could be exploited to bind metallodrugs to preferred macromolecular targets.

Bioorganic and bioinorganic chemistry.

The interdisciplinary projects in bioinorganic and bioorganic chemistry of the Department of Chemistry, University of Basel led to the preparation of new systems that mimic biologically important processes and to the discovery of compounds from natural sources which are very promising with respect to medical applications. The advances in these areas are reported here.

Activation and inactivation of the iron hormone hepcidin: Biochemical characterization of prohepcidin cleavage and sequential degradation to N-terminally truncated hepcidin isoforms.

The hormone hepcidin is produced mainly in the liver in response to iron loading and inflammation and secreted into the circulation as a 25-amino acid peptide. The 84-amino acid prohormone undergoes limited proteolytic cleavage at a conserved proprotein convertase (PC) recognition site. In addition to the 25-amino acid hepcidin, N-terminally truncated isoforms of lower biological activity are found in plasma and urine. Here we show that a redundant system of proprotein convertases cleaves prohepcidin at the predicted site releasing active hepcidin-25 from the proprotein. In addition to furin mediated cleavage of prohepcidin, we found prohepcidin peptidase activity of proprotein convertases PC5/6, PC7/LPC, PC1/3 and PC2 which was specific for the release of hepcidin-25 from prohepcidin as shown by mass spectrometry. In native tissue extracts, a calcium-dependent prohepcidin peptidase activity is present specifically releasing the 25-mer hepcidin isoform from the recombinant prohormone. In contrast, the 20-mer isoform of hepcidin is generated by a calcium-independent tissue activity which cleaves the 25-mer peptide but has no activity on the entire prohormone. This finding demonstrates the presence of an additional peptidase in this inactivation mechanism for hepcidin. An inhibitor of prohepcidin cleavage was designed and synthesized from d-amino acids (QRRRRR). Biochemical studies indicated that this is a potent and generic inhibitor of prohepcidin cleavage. Biochemical and inhibitor studies of endogenous tissue peptidase activities support the implication of proprotein convertases in the activation of hepcidin. Inactivation of the peptide hormone by N-terminal truncation is mediated by other distinct peptidases, which appear to act sequentially to initial release of hepcidin-25 from the proprotein.

A biomimetic cerium-based biosensor for the direct visual detection of phosphate under physiological conditions.

An indicator displacement assay (IDA) was used to probe phosphate ions in an aqueous medium at neutral pH using a dinuclear cerium based complex [Ce2(HXTA)]3+. The homoleptic complex can be used to detect phosphate ions with nanomolar affinity either spectrophotometrically or with the naked-eye. To our knowledge, this is the first dinuclear cerium biomimetic IDA detection system with the highest affinity known to date for selective, naked-eye based phosphate recognition under physiological conditions (pH = 5-7) and even in pure water and complex samples such as sea water.

Artificial metalloenzyme for enantioselective sulfoxidation based on vanadyl-loaded streptavidin.

Nature's catalysts are specifically evolved to carry out efficient and selective reactions. Recent developments in biotechnology have allowed the rapid optimization of existing enzymes for enantioselective processes. However, the ex nihilo creation of catalytic activity from a noncatalytic protein scaffold remains very challenging. Herein, we describe the creation of an artificial enzyme upon incorporation of a vanadyl ion into the biotin-binding pocket of streptavidin, a protein devoid of catalytic activity. The resulting artificial metalloenzyme catalyzes the enantioselective oxidation of prochiral sulfides with good enantioselectivities both for dialkyl and alkyl-aryl substrates (up to 93% enantiomeric excess). Electron paragmagnetic resonance spectroscopy, chemical modification, and mutagenesis studies suggest that the vanadyl ion is located within the biotin-binding pocket and interacts only via second coordination sphere contacts with streptavidin.

Label-free detection of single protein molecules and protein-protein interactions using synthetic nanopores.

Nanofabricated pores in 20 nm-thick silicon nitride membranes were used to probe various protein analytes as well as to perform an antigen-antibody binding assay. A two-compartment electrochemical cell was separated by a single nanopore, 28 nm in diameter. Adding proteins to one compartment caused current perturbations in the ion current flowing through the pore. These perturbations correlated with both the charge and the size of the protein or of a protein-protein complex. The potential of this nanotechnology for studying protein-protein interactions is highlighted with the sensitive detection of beta-human chorionic gonadotropin, a hormone and clinical biomarker of pregnancy, by monitoring in real time and at a molecular level the formation of a complex between hormones and antibodies in solution. In this form, the assay compared advantageously to immunoassays, with the important difference that labels, immobilization, or amplification steps were no longer needed. In conclusion, we present proof-of-principle that properties of proteins and their interactions can be investigated in solution using synthetic nanopores and that these interactions can be exploited to measure protein concentrations accurately.

CFTR gene mutations in pancreatitis: Frequency and clinical manifestations in an Austrian patient cohort.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Mutations in the gene encoding the cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR) are over-represented in patients with chronic pancreatitis: 13-37% of pancreatitis patients are heterozygous for CFTR mutations, compared with the carrier estimate of 3.2% in the central European population. The aim of the current study was to investigate the association between clinical manifestations of pancreatitis and CFTR carrier status. METHODS: A cohort of 133 pancreatitis patients was recruited in a confined geographical region (Tyrol-Western Austria) and analysed for the 30 most common CFTR gene mutations in Europe by multiplex PCR and gene sequencing. Pancreatitis was classified as acute or chronic according to the criteria of the Japan Pancreas Society (JPS) and etiological factors included in the TIGAR-O classification, namely toxic, idiopathic, genetic, autoimmune, recurrent and obstructive causes were assessed. RESULTS: The overall frequency of CFTR mutations in the patient cohort was 11.2%. In patients classified as 'idiopathic definitive chronic pancreatitis' (JPS criteria), the frequency of mutations was 12.7%, whereas patients with 'acute pancreatitis' or 'possible chronic pancreatitis' (JPS criteria) had a frequency of CFTR mutations of 10% and 9.1%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The frequency of CFTR mutations is highest in patients with definitive chronic pancreatitis and may therefore be regarded as a risk factor for the development of CP. However, multiple etiological factors for pancreatitis are present in the majority of patients. Mutation analysis of the CFTR gene therefore appears to be of limited diagnostic and prognostic value in the management of chronic pancreatitis.

Zinc-selective inhibition of the promiscuous bacterial amide-hydrolase DapE: implications of metal heterogeneity for evolution and antibiotic drug design.

The development of resistance to virtually all current antibiotics makes the discovery of new antimicrobial compounds with novel protein targets an urgent challenge. The dapE-encoded N-succinyl-L,L-diaminopimelic acid desuccinylase (DapE) is an essential metallo-enzyme for growth and proliferation in many bacteria, acting in the desuccinylation of N-succinyl-L,L-diaminopimelic acid (SDAP) in a late stage of the anabolic pathway towards both lysine and a crucial building block of the peptidoglycan cell wall. L-Captopril, which has been shown to exhibit very promising inhibitory activity in vitro against DapE and has attractive drug-like properties, nevertheless does not target DapE in bacteria effectively. Here we show that L-captopril targets only the Zn(2+)-metallo-isoform of the enzyme, whereas the Mn(2+)-enzyme, which is also a physiologically relevant isoform in bacteria, is not inhibited. Our finding provides a rationale for the failure of this promising lead-compound to exhibit any significant antibiotic activity in bacteria and underlines the importance of addressing metallo-isoform heterogeneity in future drug design. Moreover, to our knowledge, this is the first example of metallo-isoform heterogeneity in vivo that provides an evolutionary advantage to bacteria upon drug-challenge.

Designed evolution of artificial metalloenzymes: protein catalysts made to order.

Artificial metalloenzymes based on biotin-streptavidin technology, a "fusion" of chemistry and biology, illustrate how asymmetric catalysts can be improved and evolved using chemogenetic approaches.