Striatal neuronal death mediated by astrocytes from the Gcdh-/- mouse model of glutaric acidemia type I.

Glutaric acidemia type I (GA-I) is an inherited neurometabolic childhood disorder caused by defective activity of glutaryl CoA dehydrogenase (GCDH) which disturb lysine (Lys) and tryptophan catabolism leading to neurotoxic accumulation of glutaric acid (GA) and related metabolites. However, it remains unknown whether GA toxicity is due to direct effects on vulnerable neurons or mediated by GA-intoxicated astrocytes that fail to support neuron function and survival. As damaged astrocytes can also contribute to sustain high GA levels, we explored the ability of Gcdh-/- mouse astrocytes to produce GA and induce neuronal death when challenged with Lys. Upon Lys treatment, Gcdh-/- astrocytes synthetized and released GA and 3-hydroxyglutaric acid (3HGA). Lys and GA treatments also increased oxidative stress and proliferation in Gcdh-/- astrocytes, both prevented by antioxidants. Pretreatment with Lys also caused Gcdh-/- astrocytes to induce extensive death of striatal and cortical neurons when compared with milder effect in WT astrocytes. Antioxidants abrogated the neuronal death induced by astrocytes exposed to Lys or GA. In contrast, Lys or GA direct exposure on Gcdh-/- or WT striatal neurons cultured in the absence of astrocytes was not toxic, indicating that neuronal death is mediated by astrocytes. In summary, GCDH-defective astrocytes actively contribute to produce and accumulate GA and 3HGA when Lys catabolism is stressed. In turn, astrocytic GA production induces a neurotoxic phenotype that kills striatal and cortical neurons by an oxidative stress-dependent mechanism. Targeting astrocytes in GA-I may prompt the development of new antioxidant-based therapeutical approaches.

Ultrastructural features of aberrant glial cells isolated from the spinal cord of paralytic rats expressing the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-linked SOD1G93A mutation.

In the rat model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis expressing the G93A superoxide dismutase-1 mutation, motor neuron death and rapid paralysis progression are associated with the emergence of a population of aberrant glial cells (AbAs) that proliferate in the degenerating spinal cord. Targeting of AbAs with anti-neoplasic drugs reduced paralysis progression, suggesting a pathogenic potential contribution of these cells accelerating paralysis progression. In the present study, analyze the cellular and ultrastructural features of AbAs following their isolation and establishment in culture during several passages. We found that AbAs exhibit permanent loss of contact inhibition, absence of intermediate filaments and abundance of microtubules, together with an important production of extracellular matrix components. Remarkably, AbAs also exhibited exacerbated ER stress together with a significant abundance of lipid droplets, as well as autophagic and secretory vesicles, all characteristic features of cellular stress and inflammatory activation. Taken together, the present data show AbA cells as a unique aberrant phenotype for a glial cell that might explain their pathogenic and neurotoxic effects.

Post-paralysis tyrosine kinase inhibition with masitinib abrogates neuroinflammation and slows disease progression in inherited amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: In the SOD1(G93A) mutant rat model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), neuronal death and rapid paralysis progression are associated with the emergence of activated aberrant glial cells that proliferate in the degenerating spinal cord. Whether pharmacological downregulation of such aberrant glial cells will decrease motor neuron death and prolong survival is unknown. We hypothesized that proliferation of aberrant glial cells is dependent on kinase receptor activation, and therefore, the tyrosine kinase inhibitor masitinib (AB1010) could potentially control neuroinflammation in the rat model of ALS. METHODS: The cellular effects of pharmacological inhibition of tyrosine kinases with masitinib were analyzed in cell cultures of microglia isolated from aged symptomatic SOD1(G93A) rats. To determine whether masitinib prevented the appearance of aberrant glial cells or modified post-paralysis survival, the drug was orally administered at 30 mg/kg/day starting after paralysis onset. RESULTS: We found that masitinib selectively inhibited the tyrosine kinase receptor colony-stimulating factor 1R (CSF-1R) at nanomolar concentrations. In microglia cultures from symptomatic SOD1(G93A) spinal cords, masitinib prevented CSF-induced proliferation, cell migration, and the expression of inflammatory mediators. Oral administration of masitinib to SOD1(G93A) rats starting after paralysis onset decreased the number of aberrant glial cells, microgliosis, and motor neuron pathology in the degenerating spinal cord, relative to vehicle-treated rats. Masitinib treatment initiated 7 days after paralysis onset prolonged post-paralysis survival by 40 %. CONCLUSIONS: These data show that masitinib is capable of controlling microgliosis and the emergence/expansion of aberrant glial cells, thus providing a strong biological rationale for its use to control neuroinflammation in ALS. Remarkably, masitinib significantly prolonged survival when delivered after paralysis onset, an unprecedented effect in preclinical models of ALS, and therefore appears well-suited for treating ALS.

Phenotypically aberrant astrocytes that promote motoneuron damage in a model of inherited amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Motoneuron loss and reactive astrocytosis are pathological hallmarks of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a paralytic neurodegenerative disease that can be triggered by mutations in Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1). Dysfunctional astrocytes contribute to ALS pathogenesis, inducing motoneuron damage and accelerating disease progression. However, it is unknown whether ALS progression is associated with the appearance of a specific astrocytic phenotype with neurotoxic potential. Here, we report the isolation of astrocytes with aberrant phenotype (referred as "AbA cells") from primary spinal cord cultures of symptomatic rats expressing the SOD1(G93A) mutation. Isolation was based on AbA cells' marked proliferative capacity and lack of replicative senescence, which allowed oligoclonal cell expansion for 1 y. AbA cells displayed astrocytic markers including glial fibrillary acidic protein, S100ß protein, glutamine synthase, and connexin 43 but lacked glutamate transporter 1 and the glial progenitor marker NG2 glycoprotein. Notably, AbA cells secreted soluble factors that induced motoneuron death with a 10-fold higher potency than neonatal SOD1(G93A) astrocytes. AbA-like aberrant astrocytes expressing S100ß and connexin 43 but lacking NG2 were identified in nearby motoneurons, and their number increased sharply after disease onset. Thus, AbA cells appear to be an as-yet unknown astrocyte population arising during ALS progression with unprecedented proliferative and neurotoxic capacity and may be potential cellular targets for slowing ALS progression.

Transcriptomic Analyses of Neurotoxic Astrocytes Derived from Adult Triple Transgenic Alzheimer's Disease Mice.

Neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease have been classically studied from a purely neuronocentric point of view. More recent evidences support the notion that other cell populations are involved in disease progression. In this sense, the possible pathogenic role of glial cells like astrocytes is increasingly being recognized. Once faced with tissue damage signals and other stimuli present in disease environments, astrocytes suffer many morphological and functional changes, a process referred as reactive astrogliosis. Studies from murine models and humans suggest that these complex and heterogeneous responses could manifest as disease-specific astrocyte phenotypes. Clear understanding of disease-associated astrocytes is a necessary step to fully disclose neurodegenerative processes, aiding in the design of new therapeutic and diagnostic strategies. In this work, we present the transcriptomics characterization of neurotoxic astrocytic cultures isolated from adult symptomatic animals of the triple transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (3xTg-AD). According to the observed profile, 3xTg-AD neurotoxic astrocytes show various reactivity features including alteration of the extracellular matrix and release of pro-inflammatory and proliferative factors that could result in harmful effects to neurons. Moreover, these alterations could be a consequence of stress responses at the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria as well as of concomitant metabolic adaptations. Present results support the hypothesis that adaptive changes of astrocytic function induced by a stressed microenvironment could later promote harmful astrocyte phenotypes and further accelerate or induce neurodegenerative processes.

Morphological evidence of the protective effects of a synthetic chalcone against the striatal myelin damage induced by glutaric acid.

Ultrastructural features of striatal white matter and cells in an in vivo model of glutaric acidemia type I created by intracerebral injection of glutaric acid (GA) were analyzed by transmission electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. To test if the white matter damage observed in this model could be prevented, we administered the synthetic chemopreventive molecule CH38 ((E)-3-(4-methylthiophenyl)-1-phenyl-2-propen-1-one) to newborn rats, previous to an intracerebroventricular injection of GA. The study was done when striatal myelination was incipient and when it was already established (at 12 and 45 days post-injection [DPI], respectively). Results obtained indicate that that the ultrastructure of astrocytes and neurons did not appear significantly affected by the GA bolus. Instead, in oligodendrocytes, the most prominent GA-dependent injury defects included endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and nuclear envelope swelling at 12 DPI. Altered and reduced immunoreactivities against heavy neurofilament (NF), proteolipid protein (PLP), and myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) together with axonal bundle fragmentation and decreased myelin were also found at both ages analyzed. CH38 by itself did not affect striatal cells or axonal packages. However, the group of rats that received CH38 before GA did not show evidence neither of ER stress nor nuclear envelope dilation in oligodendrocytes, and axonal bundles appeared less fragmented. In this group, labeling of NF and PLP was similar to the controls. These results suggest that the CH38 molecule is a candidate drug to prevent or decrease the neural damage elicited by a pathological increase of GA in the brain. Optimization of the treatments and identification of the mechanisms underlying CH38 protective effects will open new therapeutic windows to protect myelin, which is a vulnerable target of numerous nervous system diseases.

Isolation and characterization of neurotoxic astrocytes derived from adult triple transgenic Alzheimer's disease mice.

Alzheimer's disease has been considered mostly as a neuronal pathology, although increasing evidence suggests that glial cells might play a key role in the disease onset and progression. In this sense, astrocytes, with their central role in neuronal metabolism and function, are of great interest for increasing our understanding of the disease. Thus, exploring the morphological and functional changes suffered by astrocytes along the course of this disorder has great therapeutic and diagnostic potential. In this work we isolated and cultivated astrocytes from symptomatic 9-10-months-old adult 3xTg-AD mice, with the aim of characterizing their phenotype and exploring their pathogenic potential. These "old" astrocytes occurring in the 3xTg-AD mouse model of Alzheimer's Disease presented high proliferation rate and differential expression of astrocytic markers compared with controls. They were neurotoxic to primary neuronal cultures both, in neuronal-astrocyte co-cultures and when their conditioned media (ACM) was added into neuronal cultures. ACM caused neuronal GSK3ß activation, changes in cytochrome c pattern, and increased caspase 3 activity, suggesting intrinsic apoptotic pathway activation. Exposure of neurons to ACM caused different subcellular responses. ACM application to the somato-dendritic domain in compartmentalised microfluidic chambers caused degeneration both locally in soma/dendrites and distally in axons. However, exposure of axons to ACM did not affect somato-dendritic nor axonal integrity. We propose that this newly described old 3xTg-AD neurotoxic astrocytic population can contribute towards the mechanistic understanding of the disease and shed light on new therapeutical opportunities.

Neuroprotective effects of violacein in a model of inherited amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive death of motor neurons and muscle atrophy, with defective neuron-glia interplay and emergence of aberrant glial phenotypes having a role in disease pathology. Here, we have studied if the pigment violacein with several reported protective/antiproliferative properties may control highly neurotoxic astrocytes (AbAs) obtained from spinal cord cultures of symptomatic hSOD1G93A rats, and if it could be neuroprotective in this ALS experimental model. At concentrations lower than those reported as protective, violacein selectively killed aberrant astrocytes. Treatment of hSOD1G93A rats with doses equivalent to the concentrations that killed AbAs caused a marginally significant delay in survival, partially preserved the body weight and soleus muscle mass and improved the integrity of the neuromuscular junction. Reduced motor neuron death and glial reactivity was also found and likely related to decreased inflammation and matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9. Thus, in spite that new experimental designs aimed at extending the lifespan of hSOD1G93A rats are needed, improvements observed upon violacein treatment suggest a significant therapeutic potential that deserves further studies.

Mitochondrial superoxide production and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 activation in p75 neurotrophin receptor-induced motor neuron apoptosis.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) can induce apoptosis by signaling through the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75(NTR)) in several nerve cell populations. Cultured embryonic motor neurons expressing p75(NTR) are not vulnerable to NGF unless they are exposed to an exogenous flux of nitric oxide (*NO). In the present study, we show that p75(NTR)-mediated apoptosis in motor neurons involved neutral sphingomyelinase activation, increased mitochondrial superoxide production, and cytochrome c release to the cytosol. The mitochondria-targeted antioxidants mitoQ and mitoCP prevented neuronal loss, further evidencing the role of mitochondria in NGF-induced apoptosis. In motor neurons overexpressing the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)-linked superoxide dismutase 1(G93A) (SOD1(G93A)) mutation, NGF induced apoptosis even in the absence of an external source of *NO. The increased susceptibility of SOD1(G93A) motor neurons to NGF was associated to decreased nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression and downregulation of the enzymes involved in glutathione biosynthesis. In agreement, depletion of glutathione in nontransgenic motor neurons reproduced the effect of SOD1(G93A) expression, increasing their sensitivity to NGF. In contrast, rising antioxidant defenses by Nrf2 activation prevented NGF-induced apoptosis. Together, our data indicate that p75(NTR)-mediated motor neuron apoptosis involves ceramide-dependent increased mitochondrial superoxide production. This apoptotic pathway is facilitated by the expression of ALS-linked SOD1 mutations and critically modulated by Nrf2 activity.

Transcriptional profile of primary astrocytes expressing ALS-linked mutant SOD1.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is caused by the progressive degeneration of motor neurons. Mutations in the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) are found in approximately 20% of patients with familial ALS. Mutant SOD1 causes motor neuron death through an acquired toxic property. Although the molecular mechanism underlying this toxic gain-of-function remains unknown, evidence support the role of mutant SOD1 expression in nonneuronal cells in shaping motor neuron degeneration. We have previously found that in contrast to nontransgenic cells, SOD1(G93A)-expressing astrocytes induced apoptosis of cocultured motor neurons. This prompted us to investigate whether the effect on motor neuron survival was related to a change in the gene expression profile. Through high-density oligonucleotide microarrays, we found changes in the expression of genes involved in transcription, signaling, cell proliferation, extracellular matrix synthesis, response to stress, and steroid and lipid metabolism. The most up-regulated gene was decorin (Dcn), a small multifunctional extracellular proteoglycan. Down-regulated genes included the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (Igf-1r) and the RNA binding protein ROD1. Rod1 was also found down-regulated in purified motor neurons expressing SOD1(G93A). Changes in the expression of Dcn, Igf-1r, and Rod1 were found in the spinal cord of asymptomatic animals, suggesting these changes occur before overt neuronal degeneration and potentially influence astrocyte-motor neuron interaction in the course of the disease. The astrocyte-specific gene expression profile might contribute to the identification of possible candidates for cell type-specific therapies in ALS.

Electrophilic nitro-fatty acids prevent astrocyte-mediated toxicity to motor neurons in a cell model of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis via nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor activation.

Nitro-fatty acids (NO2-FA) are electrophilic signaling mediators formed in tissues during inflammation, which are able to induce pleiotropic cytoprotective and antioxidant pathways including up regulation of Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) responsive genes. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by the loss of motor neurons associated to an inflammatory process that usually aggravates the disease progression. In ALS animal models, the activation of the transcription factor Nrf2 in astrocytes confers protection to neighboring neurons. It is currently unknown whether NO2-FA can exert protective activity in ALS through Nrf2 activation. Herein we demonstrate that nitro-arachidonic acid (NO2-AA) or nitro-oleic acid (NO2-OA) administrated to astrocytes expressing the ALS-linked hSOD1(G93A) induce antioxidant phase II enzyme expression through Nrf2 activation concomitant with increasing intracellular glutathione levels. Furthermore, treatment of hSOD1(G93A)-expressing astrocytes with NO2-FA prevented their toxicity to motor neurons. Transfection of siRNA targeted to Nrf2 mRNA supported the involvement of Nrf2 activation in NO2-FA-mediated protective effects. Our results show for the first time that NO2-FA induce a potent Nrf2-dependent antioxidant response in astrocytes capable of preventing motor neurons death in a culture model of ALS.

Phenotypic transition of microglia into astrocyte-like cells associated with disease onset in a model of inherited ALS.

Microglia and reactive astrocytes accumulate in the spinal cord of rats expressing the Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)-linked SOD1 (G93A) mutation. We previously reported that the rapid progression of paralysis in ALS rats is associated with the appearance of proliferative astrocyte-like cells that surround motor neurons. These cells, designated as Aberrant Astrocytes (AbA cells) because of their atypical astrocytic phenotype, exhibit high toxicity to motor neurons. However, the cellular origin of AbA cells remains unknown. Because AbA cells are labeled with the proliferation marker Ki67, we analyzed the phenotypic makers of proliferating glial cells that surround motor neurons by immunohistochemistry. The number of Ki67 (+)AbA cells sharply increased in symptomatic rats, displaying large cell bodies with processes embracing motor neurons. Most were co-labeled with astrocytic marker GFAP concurrently with the microglial markers Iba1 and CD163. Cultures of spinal cord prepared from symptomatic SOD1 (G93A) rats yielded large numbers of microglia expressing Iba1, CD11b, and CD68. Cells sorted for CD11b expression by flow cytometry transformed into AbA cells within two weeks. During these two weeks, the expression of microglial markers largely disappeared, while GFAP and S100ß expression increased. The phenotypic transition to AbA cells was stimulated by forskolin. These findings provide evidence for a subpopulation of proliferating microglial cells in SOD1 (G93A) rats that undergo a phenotypic transition into AbA cells after onset of paralysis that may promote the fulminant disease progression. These cells could be a therapeutic target for slowing paralysis progression in ALS.