Multiple controls exerted by 5-HT2C receptors upon basal ganglia function: from physiology to pathophysiology.

Serotonin2C (5-HT2C) receptors are expressed in the basal ganglia, a group of subcortical structures involved in the control of motor behaviour, mood and cognition. These receptors are mediating the effects of 5-HT throughout different brain areas via projections originating from midbrain raphe nuclei. A growing interest has been focusing on the function of 5-HT2C receptors in the basal ganglia because they may be involved in various diseases of basal ganglia function notably those associated with chronic impairment of dopaminergic transmission. 5-HT2C receptors act on numerous types of neurons in the basal ganglia, including dopaminergic, GABAergic, glutamatergic or cholinergic cells. Perhaps inherent to their peculiar molecular properties, the modality of controls exerted by 5-HT2C receptors over these cell populations can be phasic, tonic (dependent on the 5-HT tone) or constitutive (a spontaneous activity without the presence of the ligand). These controls are functionally organized in the basal ganglia: they are mainly localized in the input structures and preferentially distributed in the limbic/associative territories of the basal ganglia. The nature of these controls is modified in neuropsychiatric conditions such as Parkinson's disease, tardive dyskinesia or addiction. Most of the available data indicate that the function of 5-HT2C receptor is enhanced in cases of chronic alterations of dopamine neurotransmission. The review illustrates that 5-HT2C receptors play a role in maintaining continuous controls over the basal ganglia via multiple diverse actions. We will discuss their interest for treatments aimed at ameliorating current pharmacotherapies in schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease or drugs abuse.

Role of 5-HT2C receptors in the enhancement of c-Fos expression induced by a 5-HT2B/2C inverse agonist and 5-HT 2 agonists in the rat basal ganglia.

Some non-selective serotonin2C (5-HT2C) agonists or inverse agonists enhance the product of the proto-oncogene c-Fos within the basal ganglia, a group of brain regions involved in motor behavior and in the ability of these drugs to promote abnormal movements. The role of 5-HT2C receptors in these effects is unclear. The 5-HT2C antagonist SB243,213 (1 mg/kg), which enhanced Fos per se in the striatum and the subthalamic nucleus (STN) only, was used to study the implication of 5-HT2C receptors. The agonists Ro 60-0175 (3 mg/kg) and m-CPP (1 mg/kg) and the inverse agonist SB206,553 (10 mg/kg) enhanced Fos expression in the STN and faintly in the entopeduncular nucleus (EPN, the internal globus pallidus in primate). The effects of these drugs differed mainly in the striatum regarding the magnitude (m-CPP > Ro 60-0175> SB243,213 > SB206,553) or the striatal quadrants (faint to no labeling in lateral striatum) and in the substantia nigra. None of these compounds enhanced Fos expression by themselves in the globus pallidus or in the EPN when combined with SB243,213. Their Fos effect in the STN was reduced significantly by SB243,213 only in the case of m-CPP. In the ventromedial striatum, SB243,213 reduced the effects of m-CPP while SB206,553 reduced the effects of SB243,213. The results show that opposite pharmacological agents alter similarly Fos expression in the EPN or the STN. Although some of the effects of 5-HT agents are related to targets other than 5-HT2C receptors, the study confirms the existence of multiple 5-HT2C receptor-dependent controls recruited by these drugs upon basal ganglia activity.

The enhanced oral response to the 5-HT2 agonist Ro 60-0175 in parkinsonian rats involves the entopeduncular nucleus: electrophysiological correlates.

Lesions of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons as seen in Parkinson's disease (PD) increase orofacial responses to serotonergic (5-HT) agonists in rodents. Although this response to 5-HT agonists has been related to aberrant signalling in the basal ganglia, a group a subcortical structures involved in the control of motor behaviours, it deserves additional studies with respect to the specific loci involved. Using measurements of orofacial activity, as well as single-cell recordings in vivo, we have studied the role of the entopeduncular nucleus (EPN; equivalent to the internal globus pallidus of primates), an output structure of basal ganglia, in the hypersensitized responses to a 5-HT agonist in sham- or unilaterally dopamine-depleted rats. Intra-EPN injections of Ro 60-0175 (0.3 and 1 µg/100 nl) promoted robust oral movements in 6-OHDA rats without affecting oral activity in sham-depleted rats. Peripheral administration of Ro 60-0175 (3 mg/kg ip) decreased EPN neuronal firing rate in 6-OHDA rats compared to sham-depleted rats. Such an effect was also observed when the agonist (0.2 µg/20 nl) was locally applied onto EPN neurons. These data demonstrate the contribution of EPN to hypersensitized responses to 5-HT agonists in a rat model of PD.

What can we expect from the serotonergic side of L-DOPA?

Parkinson's disease has long been associated with neurodegeneration of the dopaminergic neurons located in the substantia nigra. The metabolic precursor L-DOPA, administered exogenously to patients, has proven its superiority over other medications. Yet, its effectiveness is altered after long-term use by diverse motor and non-motor symptoms. Knowledge of its mechanism of action would be necessary to better apprehend the side effects, but do we really know where and how it works? The connexion between L-DOPA and the serotonergic system, after a sort of crusade lasting for more than 40 years, has been acknowledged recently. The purpose of this review, mainly based on preclinical data, is to present the pharmacological and biochemical evidence demonstrating that serotonergic neurons are mainly involved in the enhancement of dopamine transmission induced by L-DOPA. We are addressing thereafter the two main expectations coming from this mechanism that are fundamental and clinical. The fundamental part will focus on the conceptual framework imposed by such a mechanism, questioning notably the notion that the benefit of L-DOPA is associated with a restoration of dopamine levels in the caudate-putamen. The clinical part will discuss serotonergic strategies to ameliorate the benefit of L-DOPA treatment in line with past and current clinical trials.

Cariprazine:New dopamine biased agonist for neuropsychiatric disorders.

Cariprazine (RGH-188, MP-214, Vraylar[TM]) is a new dopamine receptor ligand developed for the treatment of several neuropsychiatric diseases including schizophrenia and bipolar disorders. Cariprazine displays higher affinity at dopamine D3 receptors and a similar affinity at D2 and 5-HT2B receptors. At variance with some atypical antipsychotics, its affinity at 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A and histamine H1 receptors is modest compared with its three main targets. Cariprazine could correspond to a biased agonist at dopamine receptors, displaying either antagonist or partial agonist properties depending on the signaling pathways linked to D2/D3 receptors. The compound crosses the blood-brain barrier, as revealed by positron emission tomography and pharmacokinetic studies in various species. Two main metabolites result mainly from the activity of CYP34A and display properties similar to those of the parent drug. Behavioral data report that cariprazine is efficacious in animal models addressing positive, negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia with no extrapyramidal side effects. In September 2015, the FDA approved the use of cariprazine for the treatment of schizophrenia and type I bipolar disorder. The efficacy of cariprazine in other neuropsychiatric diseases is currently being evaluated in preclinical and clinical studies. Side effects have been observed in humans, including extrapyramidal side effects and akathisia of mild to moderate intensity.

The acute and long-term L-DOPA effects are independent from changes in the activity of dorsal raphe serotonergic neurons in 6-OHDA lesioned rats.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: L-DOPA is still the most efficacious pharmacological treatment for Parkinson's disease. However, in the majority of patients receiving long-term therapy with L-DOPA, its efficacy is compromised by motor complications, notably L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. Evidence suggests that the serotonergic system is involved in the therapeutic and the side effects of L-DOPA. Here, we investigate if long-term L-DOPA treatment alters the activity of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) and its responses to serotonergic drugs. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: We measured the responses of serotonergic neurons to acute and chronic L-DOPA treatment using in vivo electrophysiological single unit-extracellular recordings in the 6-OHDA-lesion rat model of Parkinson's disease. KEY RESULTS: The results showed that neither acute nor chronic L-DOPA administration (6 mg·kg(-1)  s.c.) altered the properties of serotonergic-like neurons. Furthermore, no correlation was found between the activity of these neurons and the magnitude of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. In dyskinetic rats, the inhibitory response induced by the 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT (0.0625-16 µg·kg(-1) , i.v.) was preserved. Nonetheless, L-DOPA impaired the ability of the serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine (0.125-8 mg·kg(-1) , i.v) to inhibit DRN neuron firing rate in dyskinetic animals. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Although serotonergic neurons are involved in the dopaminergic effects of L-DOPA, we provide evidence that the effect of L-DOPA is not related to changes of the activity of DRN neurons. Rather, L-DOPA might reduce the efficacy of drugs that normally enhance the extracellular levels of serotonin. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Updating Neuropathology and Neuropharmacology of Monoaminergic Systems. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v173.13/issuetoc.

Nigrostriatal lesions alter oral dyskinesia and c-Fos expression induced by the serotonin agonist 1-(m-chlorophenyl)piperazine in adult rats.

The loss of dopaminergic innervation of the basal ganglia, a group of subcortical regions involved in motor control, is the hallmark of Parkinson's disease. The resulting molecular and cellular alterations mediate behavioral deficits and may modify neuronal responses to other neurotransmitters. In the present study, we sought to determine the effects of chronic dopamine (DA) depletion on responses mediated by stimulation of serotonergic 2C (5-HT(2C)) receptors, a serotonergic receptor subtype present in discrete regions of the basal ganglia. Specifically, the effects of unilateral lesions of nigrostriatal DA neurons on oral dyskinesia and Fos protein expression induced by the non-selective 5-HT(2C) agonist 1-(m-chlorophenyl)piperazine (m-CPP) were examined. Confirming previous findings, both peripheral and local injections of m-CPP into the subthalamic nucleus elicited oral dyskinesia. Nigrostriatal lesions markedly enhanced oral bouts induced by peripheral but not intrasubthalamic administration of m-CPP. In intact rats, Fos expression was increased by m-CPP (1 mg/kg, i.p.) in the striatum and the subthalamic nucleus. After nigrostriatal lesions, m-CPP-induced Fos expression remained unchanged in the subthalamic nucleus but was reduced in the medial quadrants of the striatum and was markedly enhanced in the entopeduncular nucleus. These data demonstrate regionally specific alterations in behavioral and cellular responses to a serotonergic agonist in an animal model of Parkinson's disease.

The impact of combined administration of paraquat and maneb on motor and non-motor functions in the rat.

Paraquat (PQ) and maneb (MB) are potential risk factors for Parkinson's disease. However, their impact on non-motor disorders, monoamine neurotransmission and basal ganglia function is not clearly determined. Here we investigated the effects of combined treatment with PQ/MB on motor behavior, anxiety and "depressive-like" disorders, tissue content of monoamines, and subthalamic nucleus (STN) neuronal activity. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were intoxicated by PQ (10 mg/kg) and MB (30 mg/kg) twice a week. Two weeks later, the majority of animals (group 1, 16/26) showed a severe loss of body weight with tremor and respiratory distress and others (group 2, 6/26) showed only tremor. Animals of group 2 received PQ/MB during four weeks before developing weight loss. A last group (group 3, 4/26) was insensitive to PQ/MB after 6 weeks of injections. Groups 1 and 2 displayed a failure of motor activity and motor coordination. Group 3 showed slight motor deficits only after the last injection of PQ/MB. Moreover, PQ/MB induced anxiety and "depressive-like" behaviors in animals of groups 2 and 3. Biochemical analysis showed that PQ/MB reduced striatal dopamine (DA) tissue content paralleled by changes in the activity of STN neurons without changing the content of norepinephrine and serotonin in the cortex. Our data provide evidence that individuals are not equally sensitive to PQ/MB and show that the motor deficits in vulnerable animals, are not only a result of DA neuron degeneration, but may also be a consequence of peripheral disabilities. Nevertheless, the parkinsonian-like non-motor impairments may be a direct consequence of the bilateral DA depletion.

Blood withdrawal affects iron store dynamics in primates with consequences on monoaminergic system function.

Iron homeostasis is essential for the integrity of brain monoaminergic functions and its deregulation might be involved in neurological movement disorders such as the restless legs syndrome (RLS). Although iron metabolism breakdown concomitantly appears with monoaminergic system dysfunction in iron-deficient rodents and in RLS patients, the direct consequences of peripheral iron deficiency in the central nervous system (CNS) of non-human primates have received little attention. Here, we evaluated the peripheral iron-depletion impact on brain monoamine levels in macaque monkeys. After documenting circadian variations of iron and iron-related proteins (hemoglobin, ferritin and transferrin) in both serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of normal macaques, repeated blood withdrawals (RBW) were used to reduce peripheral iron-related parameter levels. Decreased serum iron levels were paradoxically associated with increased CSF iron concentrations. Despite limited consequences on tissue monoamine contents (dopamine - DA, 3, 4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid - DOPAC, homovanillic acid, L-3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine - L-DOPA, 5-8 hydroxytryptamine - 5-HT, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid - 5-HIAA and noradrenaline) measured with post-mortem chromatography, we found distinct and region-dependent relationships of these tissue concentrations with CSF iron and/or serum iron and/or blood hemoglobin. Additionally, striatal extracellular DA, DOPAC and 5-HIAA levels evaluated by in vivo microdialysis showed a substantial increase, suggesting an overall increase in both DA and 5-HT tones. Finally, a trending increase in general locomotor activity, measured by actimetry, was observed in the most serum iron-depleted macaques. Taken together, our data are compatible with an increase in nigrostriatal DAergic function in the event of iron deficiency and point to a specific alteration of the 5-HT/DA interaction in the CNS that is possibly involved in the etiology of RLS.

The effect of serotonergic agents on haloperidol-induced striatal dopamine release in vivo: opposite role of 5-HT(2A) and 5-HT(2C) receptor subtypes and significance of the haloperidol dose used.

This study investigated, using microdialysis in freely-moving rats, the role of serotonin (5-HT) and 5-HT(2) receptor subtypes in the enhancement of striatal dopamine (DA) release induced by various doses of haloperidol. The subcutaneous injection of 0.01, 0.1 or 1 mg/kg haloperidol dose-dependently increased DA outflow (160, 219 and 230% of baseline, respectively). The effect of 0.01 mg/kg haloperidol was, respectively, potentiated by the 5-HT uptake inhibitor citalopram (1 mg/kg, s.c.; +35%) and reduced by the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT (0.025 mg/kg, s.c.; -32%). Also, it was reduced by the 5-HT(2A) antagonist SR 46349B (0.5 mg/kg, s.c. ; -40%) or by the 5-HT(2A/2B/2C) antagonist ritanserin (1.25 mg/kg, i.p.; -34%), and potentiated by the 5-HT(2B/2C) antagonist SB 206553 (5 mg/kg, i.p; +78%). Further, only this latter compound significantly modified basal dopamine release by itself (+26%). Dopamine released by 0.1 mg/kg haloperidol was enhanced (+100%) by citalopram, decreased (-61%) by SR 4634B, but unaltered by SB 206553. Finally, none of the compounds used were able to modify the enhancement of dopamine release induced by 1 mg/kg haloperidol. These results show that central 5-HT(2A) and 5-HT(2C) receptors exert an opposite (respectively excitatory and inhibitory) influence on DA release. Moreover, they suggest that the 5-HT(2A)-dependent modulation depends on the degree of central DA receptor blockade.

Evidence for 5-HT4 receptor subtype involvement in the enhancement of striatal dopamine release induced by serotonin: a microdialysis study in the halothane-anesthetized rat.

The present study, using the in vivo intracerebral microdialysis method, investigated the role of different serotonin receptor subtypes in the control of dopamine (DA) release exerted by serotonin (5-HT) in the striatum of halothane-anesthetized rats. Striatal dialysate DA content was reduced following the blockade of voltage-dependent Na+ channels by tetrodotoxin or by the removal of Ca2+ from the perfusion medium, and increased following depolarization with K+ ions. These findings demonstrate that under our experimental conditions, DA content reflects the neuronal origin of the neurotransmitter release. Drugs were locally applied by means of the microdialysis probe. One, 2.5 and 5 microM 5-HT significantly enhanced DA release in a concentration-dependent manner up to 157, 253 and 446% of basal values respectively. The effect induced by 1 microM 5-HT was not blocked by 10 microM (-)pindolol, a 5-HT1 receptor antagonist, 1 microM ketanserin or 10 microM cinanserin, both 5-HT2A antagonists. One or 10 microM ondansetron (GR 38032F), a selective 5-HT3 antagonist, were also ineffective. In contrast, 10 or 100 microM DAU 6285, a 5-HT3/4 antagonist, significantly reduced the effect of 5-HT on DA release (-20% and -60% respectively). Moreover, 100 microM BIMU 8, a selective 5-HT4 agonist, enhanced DA release (+85%) and this effect was reduced by 100 microM DAU 6285 (-40%). These results demonstrate that in vivo 5-HT exerts a facilitatory influence on striatal DA release and that the 5-HT4, but not the 5-HT1, 5-HT2 or 5-HT3, receptor subtype is implicated, at least partially, in this effect.

Endogenous serotonin enhances the release of dopamine in the striatum only when nigro-striatal dopaminergic transmission is activated.

In this study, we use in vivo microdialysis to investigate the influence of endogenous serotonin (5-HT) on striatal dopamine (DA) and 5-hydroxyidoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) efflux in both basal and activated conditions. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors citalopram and fluoxetine were used to mobilize endogenous 5-HT. In halothane-anaesthetized rats, citalopram (5 mg/kg, i.p.), administered either alone or in combination with the 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist WAY 100635 (0.1 mg/kg, s.c.), while reducing striatal 5-HIAA outflow (-25 and -15%, respectively), had no effect on basal DA output. When locally applied into the striatum, citalopram had no effect at 1 microM concentration, but enhanced DA release after its perfusion at 25 and 100 mircroM concentrations (+27% and +67%, respectively). However, the injection of the neurotoxin 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine into the dorsal raphe nucleus, which markedly depleted 5-HT in the striatum, failed to modify the effect of 25 microM citalopram. In freely-moving rats, the intrastriatal infusion of citalopram or fluoxetine (1 microM each), had no effect on its own, but significantly enhanced the increase in DA outflow induced by the subcutaneous administration of 0.01 mg/kg haloperidol (+31% and +30% for citalopram and fluoxetine, respectively). These findings indicate that, in the striatum, endogenous 5-HT has no influence on DA release under basal conditions, but positively modulates DA outflow when nigro-striatal DA transmission is activated.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors enhance cocaine-induced locomotor activity and dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens.

The role for serotonin (5-HT) in mediating the behavioral effects of cocaine may be related in part to the ability of 5-HT to modulate the function of the dopamine (DA) mesoaccumbens pathways. In the present study, the ability of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) fluoxetine (10 mg/kg, IP) and fluvoxamine (10 and 20 mg/kg, IP) to alter cocaine (10 mg/kg, IP)-induced hyperactivity and DA release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) was analyzed in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Systemic administration of either fluoxetine or fluvoxamine enhanced cocaine-induced locomotor activity in a dose-dependent manner; fluoxetine (10 mg/kg, IP) also enhanced cocaine (10 mg/kg, IP)-induced DA efflux in the NAc. To test the hypothesis that the NAc serves as the locus of action underlying these effects following systemic cocaine administration, fluoxetine (1 and 3 micro g/0.2 micro l/side) or fluvoxamine (1 and 3 micro g/0.2 micro l/side) was microinfused into the NAc shell prior to systemic administration of cocaine (10 mg/kg, IP). Intra-NAc shell infusion of 3 micro g of fluoxetine or fluvoxamine enhanced cocaine-induced hyperactivity, while infusion of fluoxetine (1 micro M) through the microdialysis probe implanted into the NAc shell enhanced cocaine (10 mg/kg, IP)-induced DA efflux in the NAc. Thus, the ability of systemic injection of SSRIs to enhance cocaine-evoked hyperactivity and DA efflux in the NAc is mediated in part by local actions of the SSRIs in the NAc.

D-amphetamine-induced behavioral sensitization: effect of lesioning dopaminergic terminals in the medial prefrontal cortex, the amygdala and the entorhinal cortex.

The behavioral sensitization produced by the repeated administration of D-amphetamine is known to involve dopaminergic neurons in the mesoaccumbens pathway. Induction of this process is dependent on action of the drug in the ventral tegmental area while its expression involves action in the nucleus accumbens. We studied here the putative involvement of dopaminergic projections other than the mesoaccumbens in this phenomenon. We examined the influence of dopaminergic lesion of the medial prefrontal cortex, the amygdala and the entorhinal cortex in the behavioral sensitization produced by repeated injections of amphetamine either peripherally or directly into the ventral tegmental area of the brain. The repeated administration of amphetamine induced a behavioral sensitization, with the ventral tegmental area a critical site for induction of the process. This sensitization to amphetamine cross-reacted with morphine and was still observed 2 weeks after cessation of the treatment. Bilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesion of dopaminergic terminals in either the medial prefrontal cortex or the amygdala, but not in the entorhinal cortex, prevented the development of behavioral sensitization to amphetamine and the cross-sensitization with morphine, whether the amphetamine pretreatment was administered peripherally or directly into the ventral tegmental area. In conclusion, these results indicated that behavioral sensitization to amphetamine, which involves dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area, is also dependent on dopaminergic neurotransmission of the medial prefrontal cortex and amygdala but not of the entorhinal cortex.

Selective blockade of serotonin-2C/2B receptors enhances mesolimbic and mesostriatal dopaminergic function: a combined in vivo electrophysiological and microdialysis study.

Electrophysiological techniques and in vivo microdialysis were used to investigate the relative contribution of central serotonin-2C/2B and serotonin-2A receptor subtypes in the control of mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopaminergic function. Thus, extracellular single-unit recordings were performed from neurochemically identified dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area and the substantia nigra pars compacta, as well as simultaneous monitoring of accumbal and striatal basal dopamine release in anesthetized rats following the administration of serotonin-2C/2B (SB 206553), serotonin-2A (SR 46349B) or serotonin-2A/2B/2C (ritanserin) antagonists. Administration of SB 206553 (40-160 microg/kg, i.v.) caused a dose-dependent increase in the basal firing rate of ventral tegmental area and nigral dopamine neurons, reaching its maximum (45.2 and 28.5%, respectively) following 160 microg/kg. Moreover, burst activity was significantly enhanced by SB 206553 in the ventral tegmental area only. In contrast, injection of SR 46349B (40-160 microg/kg, i.v.), and ritanserin (40-160 microg/kg, i.v.) did not cause any significant change in the basal activity of these neurons. Basal dopamine release was significantly enhanced in both the nucleus accumbens (42%) and the striatum (33%) following the intraperitoneal administration of 5 mg/kg SB 206553. In contrast, SR 46349B (0.5 mg/kg, s.c.) and ritanserin (0.63 mg/kg, i.p.) failed to affect basal dopamine output in both regions. Taken together, these data indicate that the central serotonergic system exerts a tonic inhibitory control of mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway activity and that the serotonin-2C/2B receptor subtypes are involved in this effect. Moreover, these findings might open new possibilities for the employment of serotonin-2C/2B receptor antagonists in the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders related to a hypofunction of central dopaminergic neurons.

8-OH-DPAT, a 5-HT1A agonist and ritanserin, a 5-HT2A/C antagonist, reverse haloperidol-induced catalepsy in rats independently of striatal dopamine release.

In this study, both catalepsy and changes in extracellular levels of striatal dopamine (DA) and dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid (DOPAC) induced by the typical neuroleptic haloperidol (HAL) were simultaneously assessed, using intracerebral microdialysis in freely moving rats, in the presence of either the 5-HT1A agonist 8-OH-DPAT or the 5-HT2A/C antagonist ritanserin. HAL (1 mg/kg, SC) elicited a strong cataleptic state, reaching its maximal intensity (about 240 s) 2 h after the drug administration. This effect was paralleled by a long-lasting enhancement of striatal DA and DOPAC extracellular levels, reaching 230 and 350% of basal values, respectively. 8-OH-DPAT (0.1 mg/kg, SC) given 2.5 h after, and ritanserin (0.63 and 1.25 mg/kg, IP), given 15 min prior to HAL, significantly reduced the neuroleptic-induced catalepsy. However, both 5-HT agents failed to modify basal DA and DOPAC striatal outflow as well as the stimulatory effect of HAL on these parameters. It can thus be concluded that the anticataleptic effect of these compounds is not related to an alteration of DA release within the striatum.

Multisite intracerebral microdialysis to study the mechanism of L-DOPA induced dopamine and serotonin release in the parkinsonian brain.

L-DOPA is currently one of the best medications for Parkinson's disease. It was assumed for several years that its benefits and side effects were related to the enhancement of dopamine release in the dopamine-depleted striatum. The use of intracerebral microdialysis combined with a pharmacological approach has led to the discovery that serotonergic neurons are responsible for dopamine release induced by L-DOPA. The subsequent use of multisite microdialysis has further revealed that L-DOPA-stimulated dopamine release is widespread and related to the serotonergic innervation. The present Review emphasizes the functional impact of extrastriatal release of dopamine induced by L-DOPA in both the therapeutic and side effects of L-DOPA.

Monoamines tissue content analysis reveals restricted and site-specific correlations in brain regions involved in cognition.

The dopamine (DA), noradrenalin (NA) and serotonin (5-HT) monoaminergic systems are deeply involved in cognitive processes via their influence on cortical and subcortical regions. The widespread distribution of these monoaminergic networks is one of the main difficulties in analyzing their functions and interactions. To address this complexity, we assessed whether inter-individual differences in monoamine tissue contents of various brain areas could provide information about their functional relationships. We used a sensitive biochemical approach to map endogenous monoamine tissue content in 20 rat brain areas involved in cognition, including 10 cortical areas and examined correlations within and between the monoaminergic systems. Whereas DA content and its respective metabolite largely varied across brain regions, the NA and 5-HT contents were relatively homogenous. As expected, the tissue content varied among individuals. Our analyses revealed a few specific relationships (10%) between the tissue content of each monoamine in paired brain regions and even between monoamines in paired brain regions. The tissue contents of NA, 5-HT and DA were inter-correlated with a high incidence when looking at a specific brain region. Most correlations found between cortical areas were positive while some cortico-subcortical relationships regarding the DA, NA and 5-HT tissue contents were negative, in particular for DA content. In conclusion, this work provides a useful database of the monoamine tissue content in numerous brain regions. It suggests that the regulation of these neuromodulatory systems is achieved mainly at the terminals, and that each of these systems contributes to the regulation of the other two.

Intrapallidal administration of 6-hydroxydopamine mimics in large part the electrophysiological and behavioral consequences of major dopamine depletion in the rat.

In addition to GABA and glutamate innervations, the globus pallidus (GP) receives dopamine afferents from the pars compacta of the substantia nigra (SNc), and in turn, sends inhibitory GABAergic efferents to the subthalamic nucleus (STN) and the pars reticulata of the substantia nigra (SNr). Nevertheless, the role of dopamine in the modulation of these pallido-subthalamic and pallido-nigral projections is not known. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of intrapallidal injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) on the electrical activity of STN and SNr neurons using in vivo extracellular single unit recordings in the rat and on motor behaviors, using the "open field" actimeter and the stepping test. We show that intrapallidal injection of 6-OHDA significantly decreased locomotor activity and contralateral paw use. Electrophysiological recordings show that 6-OHDA injection into GP significantly increased the number of bursty cells in the STN without changing the firing rate, while in the SNr neuronal firing rate decreased and the proportion of irregular cells increased. Our data provide evidence that intrapallidal injection of 6-OHDA resulted in motor deficits paralleled by changes in the firing activity of STN and SNr neurons, which mimic in large part those obtained after major dopamine depletion in the classical rat model of Parkinson's disease. They support the assumption that in addition to its action in the striatum, dopamine mediates its regulatory function at various levels of the basal ganglia circuitry, including the GP.

Lead intoxication induces noradrenaline depletion, motor nonmotor disabilities, and changes in the firing pattern of subthalamic nucleus neurons.

Lead intoxication has been suggested as a high risk factor for the development of Parkinson disease. However, its impact on motor and nonmotor functions and the mechanism by which it can be involved in the disease are still unclear. In the present study, we studied the effects of lead intoxication on the following: (1) locomotor activity using an open field actimeter and motor coordination using the rotarod test, (2) anxiety behavior using the elevated plus maze, (3) "depression-like" behavior using sucrose preference test, and (4) subthalamic nucleus (STN) neuronal activity using extracellular single unit recordings. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated once a day with lead acetate or sodium acetate (20 mg/kg/d i.p.) during 3 weeks. The tissue content of monoamines was used to determine alteration of these systems at the end of experiments. Results show that lead significantly reduced exploratory activity, locomotor activity and the time spent on the rotarod bar. Furthermore, lead induced anxiety but not "depressive-like" behavior. The electrophysiological results show that lead altered the discharge pattern of STN neurons with an increase in the number of bursting and irregular cells without affecting the firing rate. Moreover, lead intoxication resulted in a decrease of tissue noradrenaline content without any change in the levels of dopamine and serotonin. Together, these results show for the first time that lead intoxication resulted in motor and nonmotor behavioral changes paralleled by noradrenaline depletion and changes in the firing activity of STN neurons, providing evidence consistent with the induction of atypical parkinsonian-like deficits.