Unexpected Potency Differences between B-Cell-Activating Factor (BAFF) Antagonist Antibodies against Various Forms of BAFF: Trimer, 60-Mer, and Membrane-Bound.

Therapeutic agents antagonizing B-cell-activating factor/B-lymphocyte stimulator (BAFF/BLyS) are currently in clinical development for autoimmune diseases; belimumab is the first Food and Drug Administration-approved drug in more than 50 years for the treatment of lupus. As a member of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily, BAFF promotes B-cell survival and homeostasis and is overexpressed in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and other autoimmune diseases. BAFF exists in three recognized forms: membrane-bound and two secreted, soluble forms of either trimeric or 60-mer oligomeric states. To date, most in vitro pharmacology studies of BAFF neglect one or more of these forms. Here, we report a comprehensive in vitro cell-based analysis of BAFF in assay systems that measure all forms of BAFF-mediated activation. We demonstrate the effects of these BAFF forms in both a primary human B-cell proliferation assay and in nuclear factor κB reporter assay systems in Chinese hamster ovary cells expressing BAFF receptors and transmembrane activator and calcium-modulator and cyclophilin ligand interactor (TACI). In contrast to the mouse system, we find that BAFF trimer activates the human TACI receptor. Further, we profiled the activities of two clinically advanced BAFF antagonist antibodies, belimumab and tabalumab. Unexpectedly, we revealed differences in inhibitory potencies against the various BAFF forms, in particular that belimumab does not potently inhibit BAFF 60-mer. Through this increased understanding of the activity of BAFF antagonists against different forms of BAFF, we hope to influence the discovery of BAFF antagonist antibodies with distinct therapeutic mechanisms for improvement in the treatment of lupus or other related autoimmune pathologies.

A G protein-biased ligand at the µ-opioid receptor is potently analgesic with reduced gastrointestinal and respiratory dysfunction compared with morphine.

The concept of ligand bias at G protein-coupled receptors broadens the possibilities for agonist activities and provides the opportunity to develop safer, more selective therapeutics. Morphine pharmacology in ß-arrestin-2 knockout mice suggested that a ligand that promotes coupling of the µ-opioid receptor (MOR) to G proteins, but not ß-arrestins, would result in higher analgesic efficacy, less gastrointestinal dysfunction, and less respiratory suppression than morphine. Here we report the discovery of TRV130 ([(3-methoxythiophen-2-yl)methyl]({2-[(9R)-9-(pyridin-2-yl)-6-oxaspiro[4.5]decan-9-yl]ethyl})amine), a novel MOR G protein-biased ligand. In cell-based assays, TRV130 elicits robust G protein signaling, with potency and efficacy similar to morphine, but with far less ß-arrestin recruitment and receptor internalization. In mice and rats, TRV130 is potently analgesic while causing less gastrointestinal dysfunction and respiratory suppression than morphine at equianalgesic doses. TRV130 successfully translates evidence that analgesic and adverse MOR signaling pathways are distinct into a biased ligand with differentiated pharmacology. These preclinical data suggest that TRV130 may be a safer and more tolerable therapeutic for treating severe pain.

Biased ligands for better cardiovascular drugs: dissecting G-protein-coupled receptor pharmacology.

Drug discovery efforts targeting G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) have been immensely successful in creating new cardiovascular medicines. Currently marketed GPCR drugs are broadly classified as either agonists that activate receptors or antagonists that prevent receptor activation by endogenous stimuli. However, GPCR couple to a multitude of intracellular signaling pathways beyond classical G-protein signals, and these signals can be independently activated by biased ligands to vastly expand the potential for new drugs at these classic targets. By selectively engaging only a subset of a receptor's potential intracellular partners, biased ligands may deliver more precise therapeutic benefit with fewer side effects than current GPCR-targeted drugs. In this review, we discuss the history of biased ligand research, the current understanding of how biased ligands exert their unique pharmacology, and how research into GPCR signaling has uncovered previously unappreciated capabilities of receptor pharmacology. We focus on several receptors to illustrate the approaches taken and discoveries made, and how these are steadily illuminating the intricacies of GPCR pharmacology. Discoveries of biased ligands targeting the angiotensin II type 1 receptor and of separable pharmacology suggesting the potential value of biased ligands targeting the ß-adrenergic receptors and nicotinic acid receptor GPR109a highlight the powerful clinical promise of this new category of potential therapeutics.

Quantifying ligand bias at seven-transmembrane receptors.

Seven transmembrane receptors (7TMRs), commonly referred to as G protein-coupled receptors, form a large part of the "druggable" genome. 7TMRs can signal through parallel pathways simultaneously, such as through heterotrimeric G proteins from different families, or, as more recently appreciated, through the multifunctional adapters, ß-arrestins. Biased agonists, which signal with different efficacies to a receptor's multiple downstream pathways, are useful tools for deconvoluting this signaling complexity. These compounds may also be of therapeutic use because they have distinct functional and therapeutic profiles from "balanced agonists." Although some methods have been proposed to identify biased ligands, no comparison of these methods applied to the same set of data has been performed. Therefore, at this time, there are no generally accepted methods to quantify the relative bias of different ligands, making studies of biased signaling difficult. Here, we use complementary computational approaches for the quantification of ligand bias and demonstrate their application to two well known drug targets, the ß2 adrenergic and angiotensin II type 1A receptors. The strategy outlined here allows a quantification of ligand bias and the identification of weakly biased compounds. This general method should aid in deciphering complex signaling pathways and may be useful for the development of novel biased therapeutic ligands as drugs.

Selectively engaging ß-arrestins at the angiotensin II type 1 receptor reduces blood pressure and increases cardiac performance.

Biased G protein-coupled receptor ligands engage subsets of the receptor signals normally stimulated by unbiased agonists. However, it is unclear whether ligand bias can elicit differentiated pharmacology in vivo. Here, we describe the discovery of a potent, selective ß-arrestin biased ligand of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor. TRV120027 (Sar-Arg-Val-Tyr-Ile-His-Pro-D-Ala-OH) competitively antagonizes angiotensin II-stimulated G protein signaling, but stimulates ß-arrestin recruitment and activates several kinase pathways, including p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinase, Src, and endothelial nitric-oxide synthase phosphorylation via ß-arrestin coupling. Consistent with ß-arrestin efficacy, and unlike unbiased antagonists, TRV120027 increased cardiomyocyte contractility in vitro. In rats, TRV120027 reduced mean arterial pressure, as did the unbiased antagonists losartan and telmisartan. However, unlike the unbiased antagonists, which decreased cardiac performance, TRV120027 increased cardiac performance and preserved cardiac stroke volume. These striking differences in vivo between unbiased and ß-arrestin biased ligands validate the use of biased ligands to selectively target specific receptor functions in drug discovery.

Beta-arrestins regulate atherosclerosis and neointimal hyperplasia by controlling smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration.

Atherosclerosis and arterial injury-induced neointimal hyperplasia involve medial smooth muscle cell (SMC) proliferation and migration into the arterial intima. Because many 7-transmembrane and growth factor receptors promote atherosclerosis, we hypothesized that the multifunctional adaptor proteins beta-arrestin1 and -2 might regulate this pathological process. Deficiency of beta-arrestin2 in ldlr(-/-) mice reduced aortic atherosclerosis by 40% and decreased the prevalence of atheroma SMCs by 35%, suggesting that beta-arrestin2 promotes atherosclerosis through effects on SMCs. To test this potential atherogenic mechanism more specifically, we performed carotid endothelial denudation in congenic wild-type, beta-arrestin1(-/-), and beta-arrestin2(-/-) mice. Neointimal hyperplasia was enhanced in beta-arrestin1(-/-) mice, and diminished in beta-arrestin2(-/-) mice. Neointimal cells expressed SMC markers and did not derive from bone marrow progenitors, as demonstrated by bone marrow transplantation with green fluorescent protein-transgenic cells. Moreover, the reduction in neointimal hyperplasia seen in beta-arrestin2(-/-) mice was not altered by transplantation with either wild-type or beta-arrestin2(-/-) bone marrow cells. After carotid injury, medial SMC extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation and proliferation were increased in beta-arrestin1(-/-) and decreased in beta-arrestin2(-/-) mice. Concordantly, thymidine incorporation and extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation and migration evoked by 7-transmembrane receptors were greater than wild type in beta-arrestin1(-/-) SMCs and less in beta-arrestin2(-/-) SMCs. Proliferation was less than wild type in beta-arrestin2(-/-) SMCs but not in beta-arrestin2(-/-) endothelial cells. We conclude that beta-arrestin2 aggravates atherosclerosis through mechanisms involving SMC proliferation and migration and that these SMC activities are regulated reciprocally by beta-arrestin2 and beta-arrestin1. These findings identify inhibition of beta-arrestin2 as a novel therapeutic strategy for combating atherosclerosis and arterial restenosis after angioplasty.

The Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV/HHV-8) K1 protein induces expression of angiogenic and invasion factors.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV/HHV-8) has been linked to Kaposi's sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma, and multicentric Castleman's disease. In addition to endothelial cells and B lymphocytes, KSHV also has been shown to infect epithelial cells and keratinocytes. The transmembrane glycoprotein K1, encoded by the first open reading frame of KSHV, is a signaling protein capable of eliciting B-cell activation. We show that KSHV K1 can induce expression and secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in epithelial and endothelial cells. Up-regulation of VEGF was mediated at the transcriptional level because expression of K1 resulted in VEGF promoter activation. We also show that K1 induces expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in endothelial cells. Additional analyses with K1 mutant proteins revealed that the SH2 binding motifs present in the K1 cytoplasmic tail are necessary for VEGF secretion and MMP-9 induction. These results indicate that K1 signaling may contribute to KSHV-associated pathogenesis through a paracrine mechanism by promoting the secretion of VEGF and MMP-9 into the surrounding matrix.

Structure-activity relationships and discovery of a G protein biased µ opioid receptor ligand, [(3-methoxythiophen-2-yl)methyl]({2-[(9R)-9-(pyridin-2-yl)-6-oxaspiro-[4.5]decan-9-yl]ethyl})amine (TRV130), for the treatment of acute severe pain.

The concept of "ligand bias" at G protein coupled receptors has been introduced to describe ligands which preferentially stimulate one intracellular signaling pathway over another. There is growing interest in developing biased G protein coupled receptor ligands to yield safer, better tolerated, and more efficacious drugs. The classical µ opioid morphine elicited increased efficacy and duration of analgesic response with reduced side effects in ß-arrestin-2 knockout mice compared to wild-type mice, suggesting that G protein biased µ opioid receptor agonists would be more efficacious with reduced adverse events. Here we describe our efforts to identify a potent, selective, and G protein biased µ opioid receptor agonist, TRV130 ((R)-30). This novel molecule demonstrated an improved therapeutic index (analgesia vs adverse effects) in rodent models and characteristics appropriate for clinical development. It is currently being evaluated in human clinical trials for the treatment of acute severe pain.

beta-Arrestin1 mediates nicotinic acid-induced flushing, but not its antilipolytic effect, in mice.

Nicotinic acid is one of the most effective agents for both lowering triglycerides and raising HDL. However, the side effect of cutaneous flushing severely limits patient compliance. As nicotinic acid stimulates the GPCR GPR109A and Gi/Go proteins, here we dissected the roles of G proteins and the adaptor proteins, beta-arrestins, in nicotinic acid-induced signaling and physiological responses. In a human cell line-based signaling assay, nicotinic acid stimulation led to pertussis toxin-sensitive lowering of cAMP, recruitment of beta-arrestins to the cell membrane, an activating conformational change in beta-arrestin, and beta-arrestin-dependent signaling to ERK MAPK. In addition, we found that nicotinic acid promoted the binding of beta-arrestin1 to activated cytosolic phospholipase A2 as well as beta-arrestin1-dependent activation of cytosolic phospholipase A2 and release of arachidonate, the precursor of prostaglandin D2 and the vasodilator responsible for the flushing response. Moreover, beta-arrestin1-null mice displayed reduced cutaneous flushing in response to nicotinic acid, although the improvement in serum free fatty acid levels was similar to that observed in wild-type mice. These data suggest that the adverse side effect of cutaneous flushing is mediated by beta-arrestin1, but lowering of serum free fatty acid levels is not. Furthermore, G protein-biased ligands that activate GPR109A in a beta-arrestin-independent fashion may represent an improved therapeutic option for the treatment of dyslipidemia.

Beta-arrestin-mediated signaling regulates protein synthesis.

Seven transmembrane receptors (7TMRs) exert strong regulatory influences on virtually all physiological processes. Although it is historically assumed that heterotrimeric G proteins mediate these actions, there is a newer appreciation that beta-arrestins, originally thought only to desensitize G protein signaling, also serve as independent receptor signal transducers. Recently, we found that activation of ERK1/2 by the angiotensin receptor occurs via both of these distinct pathways. In this work, we explore the physiological consequences of beta-arrestin ERK1/2 signaling and delineate a pathway that regulates mRNA translation and protein synthesis via Mnk1, a protein that both physically interacts with and is activated by beta-arrestins. We show that beta-arrestin-dependent activation of ERK1/2, Mnk1, and eIF4E are responsible for increasing translation rates in both human embryonic kidney 293 and rat vascular smooth muscle cells. This novel demonstration that beta-arrestins regulate protein synthesis reveals that the spectrum of beta-arrestin-mediated signaling events is broader than previously imagined.

Beta-arrestins and cell signaling.

Upon their discovery, beta-arrestins 1 and 2 were named for their capacity to sterically hinder the G protein coupling of agonist-activated seven-transmembrane receptors, ultimately resulting in receptor desensitization. Surprisingly, recent evidence shows that beta-arrestins can also function to activate signaling cascades independently of G protein activation. By serving as multiprotein scaffolds, the beta-arrestins bring elements of specific signaling pathways into close proximity. beta-Arrestin regulation has been demonstrated for an ever-increasing number of signaling molecules, including the mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK, JNK, and p38 as well as Akt, PI3 kinase, and RhoA. In addition, investigators are discovering new roles for beta-arrestins in nuclear functions. Here, we review the signaling capacities of these versatile adapter molecules and discuss the possible implications for cellular processes such as chemotaxis and apoptosis.

A unique mechanism of beta-blocker action: carvedilol stimulates beta-arrestin signaling.

For many years, beta-adrenergic receptor antagonists (beta-blockers or betaAR antagonists) have provided significant morbidity and mortality benefits in patients who have sustained acute myocardial infarction. More recently, beta-adrenergic receptor antagonists have been found to provide survival benefits in patients suffering from heart failure, although the efficacy of different beta-blockers varies widely in this condition. One drug, carvedilol, a nonsubtype-selective betaAR antagonist, has proven particularly effective in the treatment of heart failure, although the mechanism(s) responsible for this are controversial. Here, we report that among 16 clinically relevant betaAR antagonists, carvedilol displays a unique profile of in vitro signaling characteristics. We observed that in beta2 adrenergic receptor (beta2AR)-expressing HEK-293 cells, carvedilol has inverse efficacy for stimulating G(s)-dependent adenylyl cyclase but, nonetheless, stimulates (i) phosphorylation of the receptor's cytoplasmic tail on previously documented G protein-coupled receptor kinase sites; (ii) recruitment of beta-arrestin to the beta2AR; (iii) receptor internalization; and (iv) activation of extracellular regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK 1/2), which is maintained in the G protein-uncoupled mutant beta2AR(T68F,Y132G,Y219A) (beta2AR(TYY)) and abolished by beta-arrestin2 siRNA. Taken together, these data indicate that carvedilol is able to stabilize a receptor conformation which, although uncoupled from G(s), is nonetheless able to stimulate beta-arrestin-mediated signaling. We hypothesize that such signaling may contribute to the special efficacy of carvedilol in the treatment of heart failure and may serve as a prototype for a new generation of therapeutic beta2AR ligands.

G protein-coupled receptor kinase and beta-arrestin-mediated desensitization of the angiotensin II type 1A receptor elucidated by diacylglycerol dynamics.

Receptor desensitization progressively limits responsiveness of cells to chronically applied stimuli. Desensitization in the continuous presence of agonist has been difficult to study with available assay methods. Here, we used a fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based live cell assay for the second messenger diacylglycerol to measure desensitization of a model seven-transmembrane receptor, the Gq-coupled angiotensin II type 1(A) receptor, expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. In response to angiotensin II, we observed a transient diacylglycerol response reflecting activation and complete desensitization of the receptor within 2-5 min. By utilizing a variety of approaches including graded tetracycline-inducible receptor expression, mutated receptors, and overexpression or short interfering RNA-mediated silencing of putative components of the cellular desensitization machinery, we conclude that the rate and extent of receptor desensitization are critically determined by the following: receptor concentration in the plasma membrane; the presence of phosphorylation sites on the carboxyl terminus of the receptor; kinase activity of G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2, but not of G protein-coupled receptor kinases 3, 5, or 6; and stoichiometric expression of beta-arrestin. The findings introduce the use of the biosensor diacylglycerol reporter as a powerful means for studying Gq-coupled receptor desensitization and document that, at the levels of receptor overexpression commonly used in such studies, the properties of the desensitization process are markedly perturbed and do not reflect normal cellular physiology.

The latency-associated nuclear antigen of rhesus monkey rhadinovirus inhibits viral replication through repression of Orf50/Rta transcriptional activation.

Rhesus monkey rhadinovirus (RRV) is a gamma-2-herpesvirus that is closely related to Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus/human herpesvirus-8. We have previously reported that the transcript for RRV latency-associated nuclear antigen (R-LANA) is expressed during lytic replication in rhesus fibroblasts. In this article, we report the development of a latent culture system for RRV and show that mRNA specific for R-LANA is expressed during latency as well. We have characterized the R-LANA protein and demonstrate that it exhibits a nuclear speckled localization and possesses the ability to homodimerize. When expressed in rhesus fibroblasts, R-LANA can inhibit RRV lytic replication in vitro. We have investigated the mechanism behind this inhibition and find that, while R-LANA itself has very little effect on lytic promoters, it can dramatically decrease the transactivation function of RRV Orf50 (Rta), which is the major viral transcription factor. We further show that the mechanism for this repression involves the recruitment of histone deacetylase complexes (HDACs), because R-LANA's ability to repress Orf50 transactivation is completely reversed by the addition of the HDAC inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA). We also report that TSA alone can significantly reactivate RRV from latently infected cells. We propose that the repressive effects of R-LANA on RRV Orf50 transactivation serve to downregulate the transcription of early genes at late times during the lytic cycle and also help to maintain viral latency by preventing viral reactivation.

Whole-genome transcription profiling of rhesus monkey rhadinovirus.

Rhesus monkey rhadinovirus (RRV) and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV; also called human herpesvirus 8) belong to the gamma-2 grouping of herpesviruses. RRV and KSHV share a high degree of sequence similarity, and their genomes are organized in a similar fashion. RRV serves as an excellent animal model system to study the gamma herpesvirus life cycle both in vitro and in vivo. We have developed a high-sensitivity, high-throughput, high-specificity real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase-based PCR assay for RRV and have used this assay to profile transcription from the whole RRV genome during de novo productive infection of rhesus fibroblasts. Using this assay, we demonstrate that the genome-wide transcription profile for RRV closely parallels the genome-wide transcription profile for KSHV.

Kinetics of expression of rhesus monkey rhadinovirus (RRV) and identification and characterization of a polycistronic transcript encoding the RRV Orf50/Rta, RRV R8, and R8.1 genes.

Rhesus monkey rhadinovirus (RRV) is a close relative of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV; human herpesvirus 8). RRV serves as an in vitro and an in vivo model for KSHV, and the mapping of its transcription program during lytic replication is significant since it represents de novo infection in the absence of stimulation with phorbol esters. Further, the RRV lytic system facilitates the making of recombinant viruses, and hence transcription profiling of the wild-type virus is important. Currently, the kinetics of lytic gene expression of RRV, the function of the RRV Orf50/Rta gene, and the presence of the RRV R8 and R8.1 genes are not known. This study details the transcription profile seen during RRV lytic replication and shows that RRV latency-associated nuclear antigen, viral FLIP (vFLIP), and vCyclin are transcribed during the RRV lytic phase. In addition, this study describes the identification of three new spliced products of the RRV Orf50, R8, and R8.1 genes, which are structural homologs of the KSHV Orf50, K8, and K8.1 genes, respectively. Characterization of the RRV Orf50 protein identifies it as a strong transcriptional transactivator capable of activating three early RRV promoters. Interestingly, the KSHV Orf50 transactivator can also activate these simian virus promoters, suggesting that there exists a conservation of gene function between the key transcription factors of KSHV and RRV.

Transcriptional regulation of the K1 gene product of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus.

The K1 protein of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) has been shown to be a transforming protein capable of inducing morphological changes and focus formation in rodent fibroblasts. K1 can activate B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling and upregulate activity of the NFAT and NF-kappaB transcription factors. In order to understand the regulation of K1 gene expression, we have analyzed sequences upstream of the K1 gene to identify the K1 promoter element. We have performed 5' rapid amplification of cDNA ends as well as a nuclease protection assay to map the transcriptional start site of the KSHV K1 transcript. The K1 transcriptional start site lies 75 bp upstream of the translation start site. Sequences upstream of the K1 gene were characterized for their ability to activate a luciferase reporter gene in 293 epithelial cells, KSHV-negative B cells (BJAB), KSHV-positive B cells (BCBL-1), and KS tumor-derived endothelial cells (SLK-KS(-)). We found that a 125-bp sequence upstream of the K1 transcript start site was sufficient to fully activate the luciferase reporter gene in all cell types tested. In addition, the viral transcription factor KSHV Orf50/Rta was capable of further activating this promoter element in 293, BJAB, and BCBL-1 cells but not in SLK-KS(-) cells. Promoter constructs containing additional sequences upstream of the 125-bp element did not show further augmentation of transcription in the presence or absence of KSHV Orf50.

Rhesus monkey rhadinovirus (RRV): construction of a RRV-GFP recombinant virus and development of assays to assess viral replication.

Rhesus monkey rhadinovirus (RRV) is a gamma-2-herpesvirus that is closely related to Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV/HHV-8). Lack of an efficient culture system to grow high titers of virus, and the lack of an in vivo animal model system, has hampered the study of KSHV replication and pathogenesis. RRV is capable of replicating to high titers on fibroblasts, thus facilitating the construction of recombinant rhadinoviruses. In addition, the ability to experimentally infect naïve rhesus macaques with RRV makes it an excellent model system to study gamma-herpesvirus replication. Our study describes, for the first time, the construction of a GFP-expressing RRV recombinant virus using a traditional homologous recombination strategy. We have also developed two new methods for determining viral titers of RRV including a traditional viral plaque assay and a quantitative real-time PCR assay. We have compared the replication of wild-type RRV with that of the RRV-GFP recombinant virus in one-step growth curves. We have also measured the sensitivity of RRV to a small panel of antiviral drugs. The development of both the recombination strategy and the viral quantitation assays for RRV will lay the foundation for future studies to evaluate the contribution of individual genes to viral replication both in vitro and in vivo.

Comparison of the Rta/Orf50 transactivator proteins of gamma-2-herpesviruses.

The viral immediate-early transactivator Rta/Orf50 is necessary and sufficient to initiate Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus/human herpesvirus 8 (KSHV/HHV-8) reactivation from latently infected cells. Since Rta/Orf50 is conserved among all known gamma-2-herpesviruses, we investigated whether the murine gamma-68-herpesvirus (MHV-68) and rhesus monkey rhadinovirus (RRV) homologs can functionally substitute for KSHV Rta/Orf50. (i) Our comparison of 12 KSHV promoters showed that most responded to all three Rta/Orf50proteins, but three promoters (vGPCR, K8, and gB) responded only to the KSHV Rta/Orf50 transactivator. Overall, the activation of KSHV promoters was higher with KSHV Rta than with the RRV and MHV-68 Rta. (ii) Only the primate Rta/Orf50 homologs were able to interfere with human p53-depedent transcriptional activation. (iii) Transcriptional profiling showed that the KSHV Rta/Orf50 was more efficient than it's homologs in inducing KSHV lytic transcription from the latent state. These results suggest that the core functionality of Rta/Orf50 is conserved and independent of its host, but the human protein has evolved additional, human-specific capabilities.