Eye of the beholder: Neural synchrony of dynamically changing relations between parent praise and child affect.

In this study, we aimed to determine the role of parental praise and child affect in the neural processes underlying parent-child interactions, utilizing functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning. We characterized the dynamic changes in interpersonal neural synchrony (INS) between parents and children (4-6 years old, n = 40 dyads) during a cognitively challenging task. We then examined how changes in parent-child INS are influenced by parental feedback and child affect. Parent-child INS showed a quadratic change over time, indicating a decelerated decline during the interaction period. The relationship of parental praise, in the form of positive feedback, to change in INS was contingent upon the child's positive affect during the task. The highest levels of INS were observed when praise was present and child affect was positive. The left temporo-parietal regions of the child and the right dorsolateral prefrontal and right temporo-parietal regions of the parent demonstrated the strongest INS. The dynamic change in INS during the interaction was associated with children's independent performance on a standardized test of visuospatial processing. This research, leveraging fNIRS hyperscanning, elucidates the neural dynamics underlying the interaction between parent praise and child positive affect, thereby contributing to our broader understanding of parent-child dynamics. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The level of interpersonal neural synchrony between parents and children dynamically varies during a cognitively challenging (tangram) task. The left temporo-parietal regions of the child and the right dorsolateral prefrontal and right temporo-parietal regions of the parent demonstrate the strongest parent-child neural synchrony. The relationship between parental praise (positive feedback) and parent-child neural synchrony is contingent upon child positive affect during the task. Change in parent-child neural synchrony relates to children's performance on an independent visuospatial processing measure.

Parental cognitive stimulation in preterm-born children's neurocognitive functioning during the preschool years: a systematic review.

In the United States, survival rates for preterm neonates (<37 weeks of gestation) have tripled in recent years. In parallel, preterm-born children show poorer performance in neurocognitive functioning compared to their full-term peers (≥39 weeks of gestation), and biological models predicting preterm-born children's neurocognitive performance have been met with limited success, highlighting a need to focus on environmental factors. Thus, this systematic review examines the literature on parental cognitive stimulation in relation to preterm-born children's neurocognitive outcomes. Studies were considered for inclusion if they included a sample of preterm-born children, included a measure of parental cognitive stimulation, and included a measure of child neurocognitive performance. The databases searched were PubMed, PsychINFO, CINAHL, ProQuest, and Scopus. Eight studies were included (44 unique associations). Findings suggest that preterm-born children's language skills might be open to a wide range of qualitative and quantitative features of parental cognitive stimulation. Our findings suggest that parental cognitive stimulation matters for preterm-born children's neurocognitive performance. Future experiential models should examine the mechanistic roles of cognitive stimulation in relation to narrowed neurocognitive outcomes to better inform possible prevention and intervention efforts. IMPACT: This systematic review examines the literature on parental cognitive stimulation in relation to preterm-born children's neurocognitive outcomes. Our review demonstrates that preterm-born children's language skills might be open to a wide range of qualitative and quantitative features of parental cognitive stimulation. The emphasis on environmental factors might ultimately better inform possible prevention and intervention efforts for children at risk as they transition to formal schooling.

Neurocognitive basis of deductive reasoning in children varies with parental education.

The neurocognitive basis of elementary academic skills varies with parental socioeconomic status (SES). Little is known, however, about SES-related differences underlying higher-order cognitive skills that are critical for school success, such as reasoning. Here we used fMRI to examine how the neurocognitive basis of deductive reasoning varies as a function of parental education in school-aged children. Higher parental education was associated with greater reliance on the left inferior frontal gyrus when solving set-inclusion problems, consistent with other work suggesting that these problems might more heavily rely on verbal systems in the brain. In addition, children who are at the lower end of the parental education continuum, but have higher nonverbal skills relied on right parietal areas to a greater degree than their peers for solving set-inclusion problems. Finally, lower parental education children with higher verbal or nonverbal skill engaged dorsolateral prefrontal regions to a greater degree for set-inclusion and linear-order relations than their peers. These findings suggest that children with lower parental education rely on spatial and cognitive control mechanisms to achieve parity with their peers with parents who have more education. Better understanding variability in the neurocognitive networks that children recruit as a function of their parental factors might benefit future individualized interventions that best match children's characteristics.

Neurocognitive mechanisms explaining the role of math attitudes in predicting children's improvement in multiplication skill.

Enhancing student's math achievement is a significant educational challenge. Numerous studies have shown that math attitudes can predict improvement in math performance, but no study has yet revealed the underlying neurocognitive mechanisms explaining this effect. To answer this question, 50 children underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) when they were 11 (time 1; T1) and 13 (time 2; T2) years old. Children solved a rhyming judgment and a single-digit multiplication task inside the scanner at T1. The rhyming task was used to independently define a verbal region of interest in the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). We focused on this region because of previous evidence showing math attitudes-related effects in the left IFG for children with low math skill (Demir-Lira et al., 2019). Children completed standardized testing of math attitudes at T1 and of multiplication skill both at T1 and T2. We performed a cluster-wise regression analysis to investigate the interaction between math attitudes and improvement in multiplication skill over time while controlling for the main effects of these variables, intelligence, and accuracy on the task. This analysis revealed a significant interaction in the left IFG, which was due to improvers with positive math attitudes showing enhanced activation. Our result suggests that IFG activation, possibly reflecting effort invested in retrieving multiplication facts, is one of the possible neurocognitive mechanism by which children with positive math attitudes improve in multiplication skill. Our finding suggests that teachers and parents can help children do better in math by promoting positive math attitudes.

The Predictive Value of Non-Referential Beat Gestures: Early Use in Parent-Child Interactions Predicts Narrative Abilities at 5 Years of Age.

A longitudinal study with 45 children (Hispanic, 13%; non-Hispanic, 87%) investigated whether the early production of non-referential beat and flip gestures, as opposed to referential iconic gestures, in parent-child naturalistic interactions from 14 to 58 months old predicts narrative abilities at age 5. Results revealed that only non-referential beats significantly (p < .01) predicted later narrative productions. The pragmatic functions of the children's speech that accompany these gestures were also analyzed in a representative sample of 18 parent-child dyads, revealing that beats were typically associated with biased assertions or questions. These findings show that the early use of beats predicts narrative abilities later in development, and suggest that this relation is likely due to the pragmatic-structuring function that beats reflect in early discourse.

Attitudes Toward Math Are Differentially Related to the Neural Basis of Multiplication Depending on Math Skill.

Attitudes towards math (ATM) predict math achievement. Negative ATM are associated with avoidance of math content, while positive ATM are associated with exerting more effort on math tasks. Recent literature highlights the importance of considering interactions between ATM and math skill in examining relations to achievement. This study investigated, for the first time, the effects of the interaction between math skill and ATM on the neurocognitive basis of arithmetic processing. We examined the effect of this interaction using a single-digit multiplication task in 9- to 12-year-old children. Results showed that higher math skill was correlated with less activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), and positive ATM were correlated with less activation in the left IFG. The relation between ATM and the neural basis of multiplication varied depending on math skill. Only among children with lower math skill, positive ATM were associated with greater activation of the left IFG. The results suggest that positive ATM in low skill children might encourage them to more fully engage the neurocognitive systems underlying controlled effort and retrieval of multiplication facts. Our results highlight the importance of examining the role of both attitudinal and cognitive factors on the neural basis of arithmetic development.

New insights from children with early focal brain injury: Lessons to be learned from examining STEM-related skills.

The study of cognitive development in children with early brain injury reveals crucial information about the developing brain and its plasticity. However, information on long-term outcomes of these children, especially in domains relevant to science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) remains limited. In the current review, our goal is to address the existing research on cognitive development of children with pre- or perinatal focal brain lesion (PL) as it relates to children's STEM-related skills and suggest future work that could shed further light on the developmental trajectories of children with PL. We argue that examining STEM-related development in children with PL will have broader implications for our understanding of the nature of the plasticity children with PL exhibit as well as address theoretical questions in the field regarding the foundation skills for STEM, including visuospatial and mathematical skills.

Through Thick and Thin: Gesture and Speech Remain as an Integrated System in Atypical Development.

Gesture and speech are tightly linked and form a single system in typical development. In this review, we ask whether and how the role of gesture and relations between speech and gesture vary in atypical development by focusing on two groups of children: those with peri- or prenatal unilateral brain injury (children with BI) and preterm born (PT) children. We describe the gestures of children with BI and PT children and the relations between gesture and speech, as well as highlight various cognitive and motor antecedents of the speech-gesture link observed in these populations. We then examine possible factors contributing to the variability in gesture production of these atypically developing children. Last, we discuss the potential role of seeing others' gestures, particularly those of parents, in mediating the predictive relationships between early gestures and upcoming changes in speech. We end the review by charting new areas for future research that will help us better understand the robust roles of gestures for typical and atypically-developing child populations.

Positive math attitudes are associated with greater frontal activation among children from higher socio-economic status families.

Math learning is explained by the interaction between cognitive, affective, and social factors. However, studies rarely investigate how these factors interact with one another to explain math performance. This study aims to fill this gap in the literature by using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to understand the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying the interaction between parental socioeconomic status (SES) and children's math attitudes. To this aim, 57 children solved multiplication problems inside the scanner. We measured parental SES by creating two groups based on parents' occupations and measured children's math attitudes using a questionnaire. We ran a cluster-wise regression analysis examining the interaction between these two variables while controlling for the main effects of SES, math attitudes, and full IQ. The analysis revealed a cluster in the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), which was due to children with positive math attitudes from high socio-economic status families showing greater IFG activation when solving large multiplication problems as compared to their negative attitudes high SES peers, suggesting that they exhibited more retrieval effort to solve large multiplication problems. We discuss how this may be because they were the only ones who fully engaged in math opportunities provided by their environment.

Maternal depressive symptoms and maternal child-directed speech: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Up to 1 in 5 children are exposed to maternal depressive symptoms. Children exposed to maternal depressive symptoms have poorer language skills than children not exposed to maternal depressive symptoms. Due to the crucial role of children's language skills in school readiness and academic achievement, it is imperative to understand the factors that underlie the relation between maternal depressive symptoms and children's language skills. Previous reviews have examined the mechanistic role of social-pragmatic features of mother-child interactions. However, the literature on the relation between maternal depressive symptoms and data-providing aspects of mother-child interactions, including child-directed speech, has yet to be consolidated. In this systematic review, we present maternal child-directed speech as a potential pathway through which maternal depressive symptoms influence children's language skills. METHODS: Following PRISMA guidelines, three database searches produced 546 articles related to maternal depressive symptoms, child-directed speech, and children's language skills, ten of which examined the relation between maternal depressive symptoms and child-directed speech. RESULTS: Findings revealed that increases in maternal depressive symptoms may be associated with decreases in amount of child-directed speech but not necessarily with decreases in the complexity of child-directed speech. LIMITATIONS: The studies in this review varied in sample size, the inclusion of important sociodemographic factors, and the operationalization of depression and child-directed speech, thereby limiting conclusions, especially about whether maternal depressive symptoms are associated with the complexity of child-directed speech. CONCLUSIONS: This review has implications for prevention and intervention efforts aimed at optimizing children's language skills; child-directed speech is modifiable, and mothers experiencing depressive symptoms may benefit from resources encouraging rich child-directed speech.

Academic skills after brain injury: A lifespan perspective.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated academic skills outcomes after brain injury and identified the influence of age and injury factors across the lifespan. METHOD: Our sample included 651 participants with focal brain lesions. Math, reading, and spelling data from the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) were used as the academic skills outcomes. Age of lesion onset ranged from 0 to 85 years old. Linear regressions were conducted to identify the relation between age and injury factors and academic skills outcomes. Lesion-symptom mapping was conducted to identify the brain areas that, when lesioned, were associated with deficits in academic skills. RESULTS: A quadratic model of age of lesion onset significantly predicted math (R² = .28, p < .001), reading (R² = .29, p < .001), and spelling outcomes (R² = .32, p < .001), while accounting for various covariates. Education, sex, lesion size and laterality, etiology, and seizure history were additional reliable predictors of academic skills outcomes across the lifespan. Academic skill deficits were associated with damage to various brain areas across the left-hemisphere frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, the insular area, and left- and right-hemisphere white matter. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports age of lesion onset as a relevant predictor of academic skills after brain injury in a lifespan sample. Several other variables (e.g., education, sex, lesion characteristics, and seizure history) are notable in the prediction of outcomes across the lifespan. Future work could investigate more diverse samples and emphasize recruitment of early onset injuries to examine generalizability and potential critical periods for academic skills. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Comparing Face-to-Face and Online Data Collection Methods in Preterm and Full-Term Children: An Exploratory Study.

The COVID-19 pandemic has transformed the landscape for children's daily lives and the landscape for developmental psychology research. Pandemic-related restrictions have also significantly disrupted the traditional face-to-face methods with which developmental scientists produce research. Over the past year, developmental scientists have published on the best practices for online data collection methods; however, existing studies do not provide empirical evidence comparing online methods to face-to-face methods. In this study, we tested feasibility of online methods by examining performance on a battery of standardized and experimental cognitive assessments in a combined sample of 4- to 5-year-old preterm and full-term children, some of whom completed the battery face-to-face, and some of whom completed the battery online. First, we asked how children's performance differs between face-to-face and online format on tasks related to verbal comprehension, fluid reasoning, visual spatial, working memory, attention and executive functioning, social perception, and numerical skills. Out of eight tasks, we did not find reliable differences on five of them. Second, we explored the role of parent involvement in children's performance in the online format. We did not find a significant effect of parent involvement on children's performance. Exploratory analyses showed that the role of format did not vary for children at risk, specifically children born preterm. Our findings contribute to the growing body of literature examining differences and similarities across various data collection methods, as well as literature surrounding online data collection for continuing developmental psychology research.

Parent Language Input Prior to School Forecasts Change in Children's Language-Related Cortical Structures During Mid-Adolescence.

Children differ widely in their early language development, and this variability has important implications for later life outcomes. Parent language input is a strong experiential factor predicting the variability in children's early language skills. However, little is known about the brain or cognitive mechanisms that underlie the relationship. In addressing this gap, we used longitudinal data spanning 15 years to examine the role of early parental language input that children receive during preschool years in the development of brain structures that support language processing during school years. Using naturalistic parent-child interactions, we measured parental language input (amount and complexity) to children between the ages of 18 and 42 months (n = 23). We then assessed longitudinal changes in children's cortical thickness measured at five time points between 9 and 16 years of age. We focused on specific regions of interest (ROIs) that have been shown to play a role in language processing. Our results support the view that, even after accounting for important covariates such as parental intelligence quotient (IQ) and education, the amount and complexity of language input to a young child prior to school forecasts the rate of change in cortical thickness during the 7-year period from 5½ to 12½ years later. Examining the proximal correlates of change in brain and cognitive differences has the potential to inform targets for effective prevention and intervention strategies.

Spatial Thinking in Term and Preterm-Born Preschoolers: Relations to Parent-Child Speech and Gesture.

Spatial skills predict important life outcomes, such as mathematical achievement or entrance into Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) disciplines. Children significantly vary in their spatial performance even before they enter formal schooling. One correlate of children's spatial performance is the spatial language they produce and hear from others, such as their parents. Because the emphasis has been on spatial language, less is known about the role of hand gestures in children's spatial development. Some children are more likely to fall behind in their spatial skills than others. Children born premature (gestational age <37 weeks) constitute such a risk group. Here, we compared performance of term and preterm-born children on two non-verbal spatial tasks-mental transformation and block design. We also examined relations of children's performance on these tasks to parental spatial language and gesture input and their own production of spatial language and gesture during an independent puzzle play interaction. We found that while term and preterm-born children (n = 40) as a group did not differ in the mental transformation or block design performance, children varied widely in their performance within each group. The variability in mental transformation scores was predicted by both a subset of spatial words (what aspects of spatial information) and all spatial gestures children produced. Children's spatial language and gesture were in turn related to their parents' spatial language and gesture. Parental spatial language and gesture had an indirect relation on children's mental transformation, but not block design, scores via children's spatial language, and gesture use. Overall, results highlight the unique contributions of speech and gesture in communicating spatial information and predicting children's spatial performance.

Production and comprehension of co-speech gestures in Parkinson's disease.

This study examined how impairments in sensorimotor abilities of individuals with Parkinson's Disease (PD) can be related to the use and understanding of co-speech hand gestures involving literal and figurative actions. We tested individuals with PD (n = 18, 12 males, Mage = 56.5, SDage = 8.16, PD duration since onset: M = 5.36 years, SD = 3.51, Hoehn and Yahr Scale:MH&Y = 2.09, SDH&Y = 0.50) and age- and education-matched neurotypical controls (n = 18, 14 males, Mage = 56.61, SDage = 8.88) with two experimental tasks. In the gesture production task, participants retold the narratives presented to them in a written format. In the gesture comprehension task, participants were asked to match a gesture with a novel verb in literal and figurative sentence contexts. Results showed that patients with PD gestured significantly less than the neurotypical controls. No group differences were found for the type of gesture use. Individuals with PD performed worse than controls on matching gestures with novel verbs, particularly for figurative meanings. Individuals' severity in the disease negatively correlated with their performance for these figurative novel verb-gesture matches. The performances in the two tasks did not correlate. These findings suggest that problems in sensorimotor abilities resulting from PD can influence overall gesture production and gesture comprehension, providing further evidence on the relations between PD and the impaired use of multimodal language.

Language development and brain reorganization in a child born without the left hemisphere.

We present a case of a 14-year-old girl born without the left hemisphere due to prenatal left internal carotid occlusion. We combined longitudinal language and cognitive assessments with functional and structural neuroimaging data to situate the case within age-matched, typically developing children. Despite having had a delay in getting language off the ground during the preschool years, our case performed within the normal range on a variety of standardized language tests, and exceptionally well on phonology and word reading, during the elementary and middle school years. Moreover, her spatial, number, and reasoning skills also fell in the average to above-average range based on assessments during these time periods. Functional MRI data revealed activation in right fronto-temporal areas when listening to short stories, resembling the bilateral activation patterns in age-matched typically developing children. Diffusion MRI data showed significantly larger dorsal white matter association tracts (the direct and anterior segments of the arcuate fasciculus) connecting areas active during language processing in her remaining right hemisphere, compared to either hemisphere in control children. We hypothesize that these changes in functional and structural brain organization are the result of compensatory brain plasticity, manifesting in unusually large right dorsal tracts, and exceptional performance in phonology, speech repetition, and decoding. More specifically, we posit that our case's large white matter connections might have played a compensatory role by providing fast and reliable transfer of information between cortical areas for language in the right hemisphere.