The ADEM2 project: early pathogenic mechanisms of preschool wheeze and a randomised controlled trial assessing the gain in health and cost-effectiveness by application of the breath test for the diagnosis of asthma in wheezing preschool children.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of asthma-like symptoms in preschool children is high. Despite numerous efforts, there still is no clinically available diagnostic tool to discriminate asthmatic children from children with transient wheeze at preschool age. This leads to potential overtreatment of children outgrowing their symptoms, and to potential undertreatment of children who turn out to have asthma. Our research group developed a breath test (using GC-tof-MS for VOC-analysis in exhaled breath) that is able to predict a diagnosis of asthma at preschool age. The ADEM2 study assesses the improvement in health gain and costs of care with the application of this breath test in wheezing preschool children. METHODS: This study is a combination of a multi-centre, parallel group, two arm, randomised controlled trial and a multi-centre longitudinal observational cohort study. The preschool children randomised into the treatment arm of the RCT receive a probability diagnosis (and corresponding treatment recommendations) of either asthma or transient wheeze based on the exhaled breath test. Children in the usual care arm do not receive a probability diagnosis. Participants are longitudinally followed up until the age of 6 years. The primary outcome is disease control after 1 and 2 years of follow-up. Participants of the RCT, together with a group of healthy preschool children, also contribute to the parallel observational cohort study developed to assess the validity of alternative VOC-sensing techniques and to explore numerous other potential discriminating biological parameters (such as allergic sensitisation, immunological markers, epigenetics, transcriptomics, microbiomics) and the subsequent identification of underlying disease pathways and relation to the discriminative VOCs in exhaled breath. DISCUSSION: The potential societal and clinical impact of the diagnostic tool for wheezing preschool children is substantial. By means of the breath test, it will become possible to deliver customized and high qualitative care to the large group of vulnerable preschool children with asthma-like symptoms. By applying a multi-omics approach to an extensive set of biological parameters we aim to explore (new) pathogenic mechanisms in the early development of asthma, creating potentially interesting targets for the development of new therapies. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Netherlands Trial Register, NL7336, Date registered 11-10-2018.

Forskolin-induced organoid swelling is associated with long-term cystic fibrosis disease progression.

RATIONALE: Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a monogenic life-shortening disease associated with highly variable individual disease progression which is difficult to predict. Here we assessed the association of forskolin-induced swelling (FIS) of patient-derived organoids with long-term CF disease progression in multiple organs and compared FIS with the golden standard biomarker sweat chloride concentration (SCC). METHODS: We retrieved 9-year longitudinal clinical data from the Dutch CF Registry of 173 people with mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene. Individual CFTR function was defined by FIS, measured as the relative size increase of intestinal organoids after stimulation with 0.8 µM forskolin, quantified as area under the curve (AUC). We used linear mixed-effect models and multivariable logistic regression to estimate the association of FIS with long-term forced expiratory volume in 1 s % predicted (FEV1pp) decline and development of pancreatic insufficiency, CF-related liver disease and diabetes. Within these models, FIS was compared with SCC. RESULTS: FIS was strongly associated with longitudinal changes of lung function, with an estimated difference in annual FEV1pp decline of 0.32% (95% CI 0.11-0.54%; p=0.004) per 1000-point change in AUC. Moreover, increasing FIS levels were associated with lower odds of developing pancreatic insufficiency (adjusted OR 0.18, 95% CI 0.07-0.46; p<0.001), CF-related liver disease (adjusted OR 0.18, 95% CI 0.06-0.54; p=0.002) and diabetes (adjusted OR 0.34, 95% CI 0.12-0.97; p=0.044). These associations were absent for SCC. CONCLUSION: This study exemplifies the prognostic value of a patient-derived organoid-based biomarker within a clinical setting, which is especially important for people carrying rare CFTR mutations with unclear clinical consequences.

The risk of community-acquired pneumonia in children using gastric acid suppressants.

BACKGROUND: With the increased use of acid suppressants, significant potential complications such as community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) are becoming more apparent. Paradoxically, in spite of an increased focus on potential complications, there is an increased use of acid suppressants in children and a lack of data specifically targeting the association between acid suppressants and CAP. Our main objective was to evaluate the risk of CAP in children using acid suppressants (proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and/or histamine-2 receptor antagonists (H2RAs)). METHODS: We performed a cohort study using data from the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink. All patients aged 1 month to 18 years with a prescription of acid suppressants were included and matched to up to four unexposed children. Time-varying Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate the risk of CAP. The cohort consisted of 84 868 exposed and 325 329 unexposed children. RESULTS: Current use of PPIs and H2RAs was associated with an increased risk of CAP (adjusted hazard ratio 2.05 (95% CI 1.90-2.22) and 1.80 (95% CI 1.67-1.94), respectively). The risk was even greater in patients with respiratory disease. Long-term use (≥211 days) of PPIs and H2RAs led to a significantly greater risk of CAP compared with short-term use (<31 days). After cessation of therapy, the risk remained increased for the following 7 months. CONCLUSION: The use of acid suppressants in children was associated with a doubled risk of CAP. This risk increased with chronic use and respiratory disease, and remained increased after discontinuation of therapy.

Risk factors for lung disease progression in children with cystic fibrosis.

To identify potential risk factors for lung disease progression in children with cystic fibrosis (CF), we studied the longitudinal data of all children with CF (aged ≥5 years) registered in the Dutch CF Registry (2009-2014).Lung disease progression was expressed as a decline in lung function (forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) % pred) and pulmonary exacerbation rate. Potential risk factors at baseline included sex, age, best FEV1 % pred, best forced vital capacity % pred, genotype, body mass index z-score, pancreatic insufficiency, medication use (proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), prophylactic antibiotics and inhaled corticosteroids), CF-related diabetes, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis and colonisation with Pseudomonas aeruginosaThe data of 545 children were analysed. PPI use was associated with both annual decline of FEV1 % pred (p=0.017) and future pulmonary exacerbation rate (p=0.006). Moreover, lower FEV1 % pred at baseline (p=0.007), prophylactic inhaled antibiotic use (p=0.006) and pulmonary exacerbations in the baseline year (p=0.002) were related to pulmonary exacerbations in subsequent years.In a cohort of Dutch children with CF followed for 5 years, we were able to identify several risk factors for future exacerbations. In particular, the association between PPI use and lung disease progression definitely requires further investigation.

Recruiting families for an intervention study to prevent second-hand smoke exposure in children.

BACKGROUND: We evaluated the effectiveness of different recruitment strategies used in a study aimed at eliminating/reducing second-hand smoke (SHS) exposure in Dutch children 0-13 years of age with a high risk of asthma. METHODS: The different strategies include: 1) questionnaires distributed via home addresses, physicians or schools of the children; 2) cohorts from other paediatric studies; 3) physicians working in the paediatric field (family physicians, paediatricians and Youth Health Care (YHC) physicians); and 4) advertisements in a local newsletter, at child-care facilities, and day-care centres. RESULTS: More than 42,782 families were approached to take part in the screening of which 3663 could be assessed for eligibility. Of these responders, 196 families met the inclusion criteria for the study. However, only 58 (one third) could be randomised in the trial, mainly because of no interest or time of the parents. The results showed that recruiting families who expose their children to SHS exposure is very challenging, which may be explained by lack of 'recognition' or awareness that SHS occurs in homes. The presence of asthma in the family, respiratory symptoms in the children, and even incentives did not increase parental motivation for participation in the study. CONCLUSIONS: The recruitment process for an intervention program addressing SHS exposure in children was considerably more challenging and time consuming than anticipated. Barriers at both a parents level and a doctor's level can be discriminated.

A European Respiratory Society technical standard: exhaled biomarkers in lung disease.

Breath tests cover the fraction of nitric oxide in expired gas (FeNO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), variables in exhaled breath condensate (EBC) and other measurements. For EBC and for FeNO, official recommendations for standardised procedures are more than 10 years old and there is none for exhaled VOCs and particles. The aim of this document is to provide technical standards and recommendations for sample collection and analytic approaches and to highlight future research priorities in the field. For EBC and FeNO, new developments and advances in technology have been evaluated in the current document. This report is not intended to provide clinical guidance on disease diagnosis and management.Clinicians and researchers with expertise in exhaled biomarkers were invited to participate. Published studies regarding methodology of breath tests were selected, discussed and evaluated in a consensus-based manner by the Task Force members.Recommendations for standardisation of sampling, analysing and reporting of data and suggestions for research to cover gaps in the evidence have been created and summarised.Application of breath biomarker measurement in a standardised manner will provide comparable results, thereby facilitating the potential use of these biomarkers in clinical practice.

Factors associated with changes in health-related quality of life in children with cystic fibrosis during 1-year follow-up.

There are limited data on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) changes over time in children with cystic fibrosis (CF). We investigated associations between clinical and treatment variables with changes in HRQoL during 1 year. Forty-nine children with CF aged 6-18 years were followed in this multicentre, observational cohort study during 1 year. HRQoL was measured by the validated disease specific cystic fibrosis questionnaire-revised (CFQ-R). The CFQ-R total score as well as most domain scores improved significantly (8.0 points and [3.3-31.7] points respectively) during the one-year follow-up. Age at baseline demonstrated a strong longitudinal association with the change of CFQ-R total score (2.853 points decrease of CFQ-R total score per year increase in age) and several domain scores. Below 12 years of age, CFQ-R total score improved in most children, whereas a deterioration was observed in most children above 12 years. The number of PEx was associated with an increase of treatment burden score (4.466 points decrease per extra PEx). CONCLUSION: In the group as a whole, HRQoL improved significantly over time. However, changes over time were significantly influenced by age: below 12 years of age, HRQoL improved in most patients whereas a deterioration was observed in most children >12 years. Strategies how to preserve or ideally to improve HRQoL in adolescence should be developed. What is known: • Quality of life in patient with CF is diminished • Although CF is a chronic disease, longitudinal data on QoL in children with CF are scarce. What is new: • Below 12 years of age, quality of life improved in most children during the 1-year follow-up whereas a deterioration in quality of life was observed in most children above 12 years. • the treatment burden score of QoL correlated with the exacerbation rate.

Exhaled biomarkers and gene expression at preschool age improve asthma prediction at 6 years of age.

RATIONALE: A reliable asthma diagnosis is difficult in wheezing preschool children. OBJECTIVES: To assess whether exhaled biomarkers, expression of inflammation genes, and early lung function measurements can improve a reliable asthma prediction in preschool wheezing children. METHODS: Two hundred two preschool recurrent wheezers (aged 2-4 yr) were prospectively followed up until 6 years of age. At 6 years of age, a diagnosis (asthma or transient wheeze) was based on symptoms, lung function, and asthma medication use. The added predictive value (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve [AUC]) of biomarkers to clinical information (assessed with the Asthma Predictive Index [API]) assessed at preschool age in diagnosing asthma at 6 years of age was determined with a validation set. Biomarkers in exhaled breath condensate, exhaled volatile organic compounds (VOCs), gene expression, and airway resistance were measured. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: At 6 years of age, 198 children were diagnosed (76 with asthma, 122 with transient wheeze). Information on exhaled VOCs significantly improved asthma prediction (AUC, 89% [increase of 28%]; positive predictive value [PPV]/negative predictive value [NPV], 82/83%), which persisted in the validation set. Information on gene expression of toll-like receptor 4, catalase, and tumor necrosis factor-α significantly improved asthma prediction (AUC, 75% [increase of 17%]; PPV/NPV, 76/73%). This could not be confirmed after validation. Biomarkers in exhaled breath condensate and airway resistance (pre- and post- bronchodilator) did not improve an asthma prediction. The combined model with VOCs, gene expression, and API had an AUC of 95% (PPV/NPV, 90/89%). CONCLUSIONS: Adding information on exhaled VOCs and possibly expression of inflammation genes to the API significantly improves an accurate asthma diagnosis in preschool children. Clinical trial registered with www.clinicaltrial.gov (NCT 00422747).

Associations between asthma, overweight and physical activity in children: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Asthma and obesity are highly prevalent in children, and are interrelated resulting in a difficult-to-treat asthma-obesity phenotype. The exact underlying mechanisms of this phenotype remain unclear, but decreased physical activity (PA) could be an important lifestyle factor. We hypothesize that both asthma and overweight/obesity decrease PA levels and interact on PA levels in asthmatic children with overweight/obesity. METHODS: School-aged children (n = 122) were divided in 4 groups (healthy control, asthma, overweight/obesity and asthma, and overweight/obesity). Children were asked to perform lung function tests and wear an activity monitor for 7 days. PA was determined by: step count, active time, screen time, time spent in organized sports and active transport forms. We used multiple linear regression techniques to investigate whether asthma, body mass index-standard deviation score (BMI-SDS), or the interaction term asthma x BMI-SDS were associated with PA. Additionally, we tested if asthma features (including lung function and medication) were related to PA levels in asthmatic children. RESULTS: Asthma, BMI-SDS and the interaction between asthma x BMI-SDS were not related to any of the PA variables (p ≥ 0.05). None of the asthma features could predict PA levels (p ≥ 0.05). Less than 1 in 5 children reached the recommended daily step count guidelines of 12,000 steps/day. CONCLUSION: We found no significant associations between asthma, overweight and PA levels in school-aged children in this study. However, as PA levels were worryingly low, effective PA promotion in school-aged children is necessary.

Clinical evaluation of the Nanoduct sweat test system in the diagnosis of cystic fibrosis after newborn screening.

UNLABELLED: After a positive newborn screening test for cystic fibrosis (CF), a sweat test is performed to confirm the diagnosis. The success rate of the generally acknowledged methods (Macroduct/Gibson and Cooke) in newborns varies between 73 and 99%. The Nanoduct sweat test system is easier to perform and less sweat is needed. The main aim of this study was to measure the success rate of the Nanoduct compared to current approved sweat test methods in a newborn population. After informed consent of the parents, newborns with a positive screening test for CF were included. The Macroduct or Gibson and Cooke and Nanoduct were performed in all infants, during the same appointment. The chloride concentration was determined by standard coulorimetry; conductivity was measured directly and converted to a NaCl molarity. One hundred eight newborns were included: 17 with CF, 7 with cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR)-related metabolic syndrome (CRMS), and 84 healthy children. The success rate of the Nanoduct was 93% and for the Macroduct/Gibson and Cooke 79% (McNemar, p = 0.002). The Nanoduct detected the same CF patients as the Macroduct/Gibson and Cooke; one CF patient had an equivocal result for both tests, and no patients were missed. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for detection of CF with the Nanoduct was 0.999, with ideal cutoff levels of 91 and 66 mmol/l, comparable to former studies. CONCLUSION: The success rate of the Nanoduct to collect sufficient sweat in infants was higher compared to the Macroduct and Gibson and Cooke.

LucKi Birth Cohort Study: rationale and design.

BACKGROUND: Infancy and childhood are characterized by rapid growth and development, which largely determine health status and well-being across the lifespan. Identification of modifiable risk factors and prognostic factors in critical periods of life will contribute to the development of effective prevention and intervention strategies. The LucKi Birth Cohort Study was designed and started in 2006 to follow children from birth into adulthood on a wide range of determinants, disorders, and diseases. During preschool and school years, the primary focus is on the etiology and prognosis of atopic diseases (eczema, asthma, and hay fever) and overweight/obesity. METHODS/DESIGN: LucKi is an ongoing, dynamic, prospective birth cohort study, embedded in the Child and Youth Health Care (CYHC) practice of the 'Westelijke Mijnstreek' (a region in the southeast of the Netherlands). Recruitment (1-2 weeks after birth) and follow-up (until 19 years) coincide with routine CYHC contact moments, during which the child's physical and psychosocial development is closely monitored, and anthropometrics are measured repeatedly in a standardised way. Information gathered through CYHC is complemented with repeated parental questionnaires, and information from existing registries of pharmacy, hospital and/or general practice. Since the start already more than 5,000 children were included in LucKi shortly after birth, reaching an average participation rate of ~65 %. DISCUSSION: The LucKi Birth Cohort Study provides a framework in which children are followed from birth into adulthood. Embedding LucKi in CYHC simplifies implementation, leads to low maintenance costs and high participation rates, and facilitates direct implementation of study results into CYHC practice. Furthermore, LucKi provides opportunities to initiate new (experimental) studies and/or to establish biobanking in (part of) the cohort, and contributes relevant information on determinants and health outcomes to policy and decision makers. Cohort details can be found on www.birthcohorts.net .

Intact IFN-γR1 expression and function distinguishes Langerhans cell histiocytosis from mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial disease.

PURPOSE: Poly-ostotic Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis (LCH) can be difficult to distinguish clinically and histologically from disseminated infection in manifesting specific subtypes of Mendelian Susceptibility to Mycobacterial Disease (MSMD). In MSMD-patients, dominant negative germline mutations in the IFN-γR1 gene, in particular in exon 6, lead to autosomal dominant IFN-γ receptor 1 deficiency (ADIFNGR1) and can mimic LCH. We hypothesized that similar defects might underlie the pathogenesis of LCH. METHODS: IFN-γR1 expression was immunohistochemically determined at disease onset in biopsies from 11 LCH-patients and four ADIFNGR1-patients. IFN-γR1 function was analyzed in 18 LCH-patients and 13 healthy controls by assessing the IFN-γ-induced upregulation of Fc-gamma-receptor I (FcγRI) expression on monocytes. Pro-inflammatory cytokine production was measured after stimulation of whole blood with LPS and IFN-γ. Exon 6 of the IFN-γR1 gene was sequenced in 67 LCH-patients to determine whether mutations were present. RESULTS: IFN-γR1 expression was high in three LCH-affected biopsies, similar to ADIFNGR1-affected biopsies, but varied from negative to moderate in eight other LCH-affected biopsies. No functional differences in IFN-γ signaling were detected between LCH-patients with active or non-active disease and healthy controls. No germline mutations in exon 6 of the IFN-γR1 gene were detected in any of the 67 LCH-patients. CONCLUSIONS: In contrast to ADIFNGR1-patients, IFN-γ signaling is fully functional in LCH-patients. Either performed before, during or after treatment, these non-invasive functional assays can distinguish LCH-patients from ADIFNGR1-patients and thereby facilitate correct therapy regimens for patients with recurrent osteolytic lesions.

Integrative genomic analysis identifies a role for intercellular adhesion molecule 1 in childhood asthma.

BACKGROUND: Childhood asthma is characterized by chronic airway inflammation. Integrative genomic analysis of airway inflammation on genetic and protein level may help to unravel mechanisms of childhood asthma. We aimed to employ an integrative genomic approach investigating inflammation markers on DNA, mRNA, and protein level at preschool age in relationship to asthma development. METHODS: In a prospective study, 252 preschool children (202 recurrent wheezers, 50 controls) from the Asthma DEtection and Monitoring (ADEM) study were followed until the age of six. Genetic variants, mRNA expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and protein levels in exhaled breath condensate for intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1), interleukin (IL)4, IL8, IL10, IL13, and tumor necrosis factor α were analyzed at preschool age. At six years of age, a classification (healthy, transient wheeze, or asthma) was based on symptoms, lung function, and medication use. RESULTS: The ICAM1 rs5498 A allele was positively associated with asthma development (p = 0.02) and ICAM1 gene expression (p = 0.01). ICAM1 gene expression was positively associated with exhaled levels of soluble ICAM1 (p = 0.04) which in turn was positively associated with asthma development (p = 0.01). Furthermore, rs1800872 and rs1800896 in IL10 were associated with altered IL10 mRNA expression (p < 0.01). Exhaled levels of IL4, IL10, and IL13 were positively associated with asthma development (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: In this unique prospective study, we demonstrated that ICAM1 is associated with asthma development on DNA, mRNA, and protein level. Thus, ICAM1 is likely to be involved in the development of childhood asthma.

Electronic monitoring of symptoms and lung function to assess asthma control in children.

BACKGROUND: Asthma remains poorly controlled in children. Home monitoring of asthma control may help to improve the level of asthma control. OBJECTIVES: To compare 2 methods to assess asthma control: (1) prospective home monitoring, based on daily assessment of forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) and electronic symptom score, and (2) Asthma Control Questionnaire (ACQ) with retrospective assessment of symptoms and FEV1. METHODS: Ninety-six children with asthma were prospectively followed up during 1 year. Asthma control was assessed by home monitoring, including an electronic symptom score based on Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) criteria and FEV1 measurements. In the hospital, the ACQ was completed and FEV1 was measured. Kappa analysis was performed to assess levels of agreement between the 2 methods. RESULTS: Agreement between the 2 methods was low (κ coefficient of 0.393). In 29 children (37%), prospective home monitoring was less optimistic than the retrospective assessment of asthma control by the ACQ. CONCLUSION: This study found low agreement between asthma control based on GINA criteria by means of prospective home monitoring and the hospital ACQ. The prospective home monitor detected more cases of less well-controlled asthma than the ACQ. However, optimization of adherence to home monitor use is necessary. TRIAL REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT01239238.

Exercise training in children with asthma: a systematic review.

Exercise can provoke asthma symptoms, such as dyspnoea, in children with asthma. Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) is prevalent in 40-90% of children with asthma. Conversely, exercise can improve physical fitness. The purpose of this paper is to provide a systematic review of the literature regarding the effects of exercise training in children with asthma, particularly in relation to: EIB, asthma control, pulmonary function, cardiorespiratory parameters and parameters of underlying pathophysiology. A systematic search in several databases was performed. Controlled trials that undertook a physical training programme in children with asthma (aged 6-18 years) were selected. Twenty-nine studies were included. Training had positive effects on several cardiorespiratory fitness parameters. A few studies demonstrated that training could improve EIB, especially in cases where there was sufficient room for improvement. Peak expiratory flow was the only lung function parameter that could be improved substantially by training. The effects of training on asthma control, airway inflammation and bronchial hyper-responsiveness were barely studied. Owing to the overall beneficial effects of training and the lack of negative effects, it can be concluded that physical exercise is safe and can be recommended in children with asthma. A training programme should have a minimum duration of 3 months, with at least two 60 min training sessions per week, and a training intensity set at the (personalised) ventilatory threshold. Further research is recommended regarding the effects of exercise on underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and asthma control in children with asthma.

Exhaled volatile organic compounds predict exacerbations of childhood asthma in a 1-year prospective study.

The hypothesis was that prediction of asthma exacerbations in children is possible by profiles of exhaled volatile organic compounds (VOCs), a noninvasive measure of airway inflammation. The aims of the present study were to determine: 1) whether VOCs in exhaled breath are able to predict asthma exacerbations; and 2) the time course and chemical background of the most predictive VOCs. A prospective study was performed in 40 children with asthma over 1 year. At standard 2-month intervals, exhaled nitric oxide fraction (FeNO), VOC profiles in exhaled breath samples, lung function and symptoms were determined in a standardised way. VOC profiles were analysed by gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry. 16 out of 40 children experienced an exacerbation. With support vector machine analysis, the most optimal model of baseline measurements versus exacerbation within patients was based on six VOCs (correct classification 96%, sensitivity 100% and specificity 93%). The model of baseline values of patients with compared to those without an exacerbation consisted of seven VOCs (correct classification 91%, sensitivity 79% and specificity 100%). FeNO and lung function were not predictive for exacerbations. This study indicates that a combination of different exhaled VOCs is able to predict exacerbations of childhood asthma.

Exhaled breath profiling in diagnosing wheezy preschool children.

Although wheeze is common in preschool children, the underlying pathophysiology has not yet been disentangled. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in exhaled breath may serve as noninvasive markers of early wheeze. We aimed to assess the feasibility of VOC collection in preschool children, and to study whether a VOC profile can differentiate between children with and without recurrent wheeze. We included children (mean (range) age 3.3 (1.9-4.5) yrs) with (n=202) and without (n=50) recurrent wheeze. Exhaled VOCs were analysed by gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry. VOC profiles were generated by ANOVA simultaneous component analysis (ASCA) and sparse logistic regression (SLR). Exhaled breath collection was possible in 98% of the children. In total, 913 different VOCs were detected. The signal-to-noise ratio improved after correction for age, sex and season using ASCA pre-processing. An SLR model with 28 VOCs correctly classified 83% of the children (84% sensitivity, 80% specificity). After six-fold cross-validation, 73% were correctly classified (79% sensitivity, 50% specificity). Assessment of VOCs in exhaled breath is feasible in young children. VOC profiles are able to distinguish children with and without recurrent wheeze with a reasonable accuracy. This proof of principle paves the way for additional research on VOCs in preschool wheezing.

The influence of sex, gestational age, birth weight, blood transfusion, and timing of the heel prick on the pancreatitis-associated protein concentration in newborn screening for cystic fibrosis.

BACKGROUND: Pancreatitis-associated protein (PAP) is currently discussed as a marker in newborn screening (NBS) for cystic fibrosis (CF). However, it is not known if PAP concentrations are influenced by sex, gestational age, birth weight, blood transfusion or time of collection and what this would mean for NBS for CF. METHODS: In 2008 all newborns in part of the Netherlands were screened for CF by an IRT/PAP protocol. PAP concentration was determined by the MucoPAP ELISA (DynaBio), which was modified to a Dissociation Enhanced Lanthanide Fluoroimmunoassay (DELFIA) method following a protocol of PerkinElmer. RESULTS: In healthy newborns, the median PAP concentration was 0.5 µg/l (Interquartile range (IQR 0.3-0.8) whereas this was 3.2 µg/l (IQR 2.0-12.5) in CF infants. PAP concentrations were lower in premature infants 0.94 and 0.91 times for 25 to 31 + 6 weeks GA and 32 to 36 + 6 weeks respectively. A higher PAP concentration was observed in low-birth-weight infants (<2500 gram)(p = 0.001), per 100 gram birth weight gained the PAP concentration decreased with 0.1 %. PAP levels were higher after a blood transfusion, the 95th percentile increased from 1.3 to 3.6 µg/l leading to a higher false-positive rate. The PAP concentration increased when newborn screening was performed more than 168 hours (day 7) after birth (ß = 1.63), the 95th percentile increased from 1.3-1.6 µg/l to 4.0 µg/l after 168 hours (72,874 newborns were screened). CONCLUSION: Sex, birth weight, and gestational age lead to small differences in PAP concentrations without consequences for the screening algorithm. However, blood transfusion as well as performance of the heel prick after 168 hours (7 days) lead to clinically significant higher PAP levels and to a higher risk on a false-positive screening test result.

A motivational interviewing intervention to PREvent PAssive Smoke Exposure (PREPASE) in children with a high risk of asthma: design of a randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Especially children at risk for asthma are sensitive to the detrimental health effects of passive smoke (PS) exposure, like respiratory complaints and allergic sensitisation. Therefore, effective prevention of PS exposure in this group of vulnerable children is important. Based on previous studies, we hypothesized that an effective intervention program to prevent PS exposure in children is possible by means of a motivational interviewing tailored program with repeated contacts focussing on awareness, knowledge, beliefs (pros/cons), perceived barriers and needs of parents, in combination with feedback about urine cotinine levels of the children. The aim of the PREPASE study is to test the effectiveness of such an intervention program towards eliminating or reducing of PS exposure in children at risk for asthma. This article describes the protocol of the PREPASE study. METHODS: The study is a one-year follow-up randomized controlled trial. Families with children (0-13 years of age) having an asthma predisposition who experience PS exposure at home are randomized into an intervention group receiving an intervention or a control group receiving care as usual. The intervention is given by trained research assistants. The intervention starts one month after a baseline measurement and takes place once per month for an hour during six home based counselling sessions. The primary outcome measure is the percentage of families curtailing PS exposure in children (parental report verified with the urine cotinine concentrations of the children) after 6 months. The secondary outcome measures include: household nicotine level, the child's lung function, airway inflammation and oxidative stress, presence of wheezing and questionnaires on respiratory symptoms, and quality of life. A process evaluation is included. Most of the measurements take place every 3 months (baseline and after 3, 6, 9 and 12 months of study). CONCLUSION: The PREPASE study incorporates successful elements of previous interventions and may therefore be very promising. If proven effective, the intervention will benefit the health of children at risk for asthma and may also create opportunity to be tested in other population. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NTR2632.