Optical sensors for determination of biogenic amines in food.

This review presents the state-of-the-art of optical sensors for determination of biogenic amines (BAs) in food by publications covering about the last 10 years. Interest in the development of rapid and preferably on-site methods for quantification of BAs is based on their important role in implementation and regulation of various physiological processes. At the same time, BAs can develop in different kinds of food by fermentation processes or microbial activity or arise due to contamination, which induces toxicological risks and food poisoning and causes serious health issues. Therefore, various optical chemosensor systems have been devised that are easy to assemble and fast responding and low-cost analytical tools. If amenable to on-site analysis, they are an attractive alternative to existing instrumental analytical methods used for BA determination in food. Hence, also portable sensor systems or dipstick sensors are described based on various probes that typically enable signal readouts such as photometry, reflectometry, luminescence, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, or ellipsometry. The quantification of BAs in real food samples and the design of the sensors are highlighted and the analytical figures of merit are compared. Future instrumental trends for BA sensing point to the use of cell phone-based fully automated optical evaluation and devices that could even comprise microfluidic micro total analysis systems.

Revising the pathways of the Li reaction with organic carbonates.

The metallic lithium electrode has major concerns such as extremely high reactivity and nonuniform needle-like electrodeposition, limiting its wide application as a negative electrode in secondary batteries. Its reactions with the electrolyte leading to solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation play an important role, and controlling its composition and properties can help to overcome both difficulties. Even though solid electrolyte interphase chemistry and properties seem to be well known, many surface chemistry experiments reported are not perfect with respect to the purity needed for Li studies and can be interpreted alternatively. Here, we studied reactions between lithium and propylene carbonate and ethylene carbonate in model reactions realized in an ultra-high vacuum. In addition to the already reported reaction pathway yielding lithium carbonate and semicarbonate, our theoretical (DFT) modeling confirms the preference of alternative routes. Along with the most beneficial final lithium carbonates, dilithium 1,2-dialkoxide (DD) can form barrierlessly as a final product by two-electron transfer. Experimental XPS/NEXAFS studies of gas phase and solid-gas model reactions revealed that in both cases DD is the main reaction product. Understanding of the discovered reaction pathway can also be essential for reactions in liquid electrolytes, although the low electric conductivity of the SEI makes it less probable.

Apoptotic endothelial cells demonstrate increased adhesiveness for human mesenchymal stem cells.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) participate in the wound healing process in mammalians. Adhesion of MSCs to endothelium is a key step in the homing of MSCs circulating in the bloodstream to the sites of injury and inflammation. Because endothelial cells (ECs) may become apoptotic under certain pro-inflammatory conditions, we investigated the effects of pro-inflammatory, TNF-alpha and IL-1 beta, and pro-apoptotic agents, actinomycin D, cycloheximide, okadaic acid, wortmannin, and staurosporine, on human MSCs (hMSCs) adhesion to ECs. Treatment of ECs with pro-apoptotic agents markedly increased adhesion of hMSCs to ECs. This adhesion correlated with reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential, inhibition of NADH dehydrogenases, and release of von Willebrand factor (vWF) by ECs. Treatment of ECs with exogenous vWF also stimulated hMSC adhesion. These data provide evidence that apoptosis of ECs may regulate homing of hMSCs to the sites of tissue injury. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that activation of apoptotic signaling pathways in ECs releases vWF which regulates hMSC adhesion to ECs.

Voltage-gated ion channel Kv4.3 is associated with Rap guanine nucleotide exchange factors and regulates angiotensin receptor type 1 signaling to small G-protein Rap.

The voltage-gated potassium channel Kv4.3 was coexpressed with its beta-subunit Kv channel-interacting protein 2 and the angiotensin type 1 receptor in HEK-293 cells. Proteomic analysis of proteins coimmunoprecipitated with Kv4.3 revealed that Kv4.3 is associated with Rap guanine nucleotide exchange factors MR-GEF and EPAC-1. Previously, we demonstrated that Kv4.3 interacts with the angiotensin type 1 receptor in HE293 cells and cardiac myocytes. On the basis of this, we investigated the angiotensin type 1 receptor signaling to small G-proteins Ras and Rap-1 in the presence and absence of the Kv4.3-Kv channel-interacting protein 2 macromolecular complex. Ras activation was not significantly affected by coexpression of Kv4.3 and Kv channel-interacting protein 2. Ras exhibited a rapid activation-inactivation pattern with maximum activity at 2.5 min after addition of angiotensin II. In contrast, activation of Rap-1 was affected dramatically by coexpression of Kv4.3 and Kv channel-interacting protein 2 with the angiotensin type 1 receptor. In the absence of Kv4.3 and Kv channel-interacting protein 2, stimulation of the angiotensin type 1 receptor resulted in steady activation of Rap-1 that reached a plateau 25 min after addition of angiotensin II. In the presence of Kv4.3 and Kv channel-interacting protein 2, Rap-1 reaches a maximum activity 2.5 min after addition of angiotensin II and then deactivates rapidly, demonstrating a pattern of activation similar to that of Ras. Our findings show that Kv4.3 regulates angiotensin type 1 receptor signaling to the small G-protein Rap-1.

Replacing damaged myocardium.

Heart failure survival after diagnosis has barely changed for more than half a century. Recently, investigation has focused on differentiation of stem cells in vitro and their delivery for use in vivo as replacement cardiac contractile elements. Here we report preliminary results using mesenchymal stem cells partially differentiated to a cardiac lineage in vitro. When delivered to the canine heart on an extracellular matrix patch to replace a full-thickness ventricular defect in vivo, they improve regional mechanical function. The delivered cells were also tracked, and some became myocytes with mature sarcomeres.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes Provide In Vivo Biological Pacemaker Function.

BACKGROUND: Although multiple approaches have been used to create biological pacemakers in animal models, induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs) have not been investigated for this purpose. We now report pacemaker function of iPSC-CMs in a canine model. METHODS AND RESULTS: Embryoid bodies were derived from human keratinocytes, their action potential characteristics determined, and their gene expression profiles and markers of differentiation identified. Atrioventricular blocked dogs were immunosuppressed, instrumented with VVI pacemakers, and injected subepicardially into the anterobasal left ventricle with 40 to 75 rhythmically contracting embryoid bodies (totaling 1.3-2×106 cells). ECG and 24-hour Holter monitoring were performed biweekly. After 4 to 13 weeks, epinephrine (1 µg kg-1 min-1) was infused, and the heart removed for histological or electrophysiological study. iPSC-CMs largely lost the markers of pluripotency, became positive for cardiac-specific markers. and manifested If-dependent automaticity. Epicardial pacing of the injection site identified matching beats arising from that site by week 1 after implantation. By week 4, 20% of beats were electronically paced, 60% to 80% of beats were matching, and mean and maximal biological pacemaker rates were 45 and 75 beats per minute. Maximum night and day rates of matching beats were 53±6.9 and 69±10.4 beats per minute, respectively, at 4 weeks. Epinephrine increased rate of matching beats from 35±4.3 to 65±4.0 beats per minute. Incubation of embryoid bodies with the vital dye, Dil, revealed the persistence of injected cells at the site of administration. CONCLUSIONS: iPSC-CMs can integrate into host myocardium and create a biological pacemaker. Although this is a promising development, rate and rhythm of the iPSC-CMs pacemakers remain to be optimized.

Tissue-engineered myocardial patch derived from extracellular matrix provides regional mechanical function.

BACKGROUND: Extracellular matrix (ECM), a tissue-engineered scaffold, recently demonstrated cardiomyocyte population after myocardial implantation. Surgical restoration of myocardium frequently uses Dacron as a myocardial patch. We hypothesized that an ECM-derived myocardial patch would provide a mechanical benefit not seen with Dacron. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using a canine model, a full thickness defect in the right ventricle was repaired with either Dacron or ECM. A third group had no surgery and determined baseline RV function. Eight weeks later, global systolic function was assessed by the preload recruitable stroke work relationship. Regional systolic function was measured by systolic area contraction (SAC), calculated by high density mechanical mapping. Tau was used to assess global diastolic function. Recoil rate and diastolic shear were used as measures of regional diastolic function. After functional data acquisition, tissue was fixed for histological evaluation. Global systolic and diastolic functions were similar at baseline and after ECM and Dacron implantation. Regional systolic function was greater in the ECM group compared with the Dacron group (SAC: 4.1+/-0.9% versus -1.8+/-1.1, P<0.05). Regional diastolic function was also greater in the ECM group (recoil rate (degrees sec(-1)): -44+/-7 versus -17+/-2, ECM versus Dacron; P<0.05). Immunohistochemical analysis revealed cardiomyocytes in the ECM implant region, a finding not seen with Dacron. CONCLUSIONS: At 8 weeks, an ECM-derived tissue-engineered myocardial patch provides regional mechanical function, likely related to cardiomyocyte population. These results are in sharp contrast to Dacron, a commonly used myocardial patch.

The use of extracellular matrix as an inductive scaffold for the partial replacement of functional myocardium.

Regenerative medicine approaches for the treatment of damaged or missing myocardial tissue include cell-based therapies, scaffold-based therapies, and/or the use of specific growth factors and cytokines. The present study evaluated the ability of extracellular matrix (ECM) derived from porcine urinary bladder to serve as an inductive scaffold for myocardial repair. ECM scaffolds have been shown to support constructive remodeling of other tissue types including the lower urinary tract, the dermis, the esophagus, and dura mater by mechanisms that include the recruitment of bone marrow-derived progenitor cells, angiogenesis, and the generation of bioactive molecules that result from degradation of the ECM. ECM derived from the urinary bladder matrix, identified as UBM, was configured as a single layer sheet and used as a biologic scaffold for a surgically created 2 cm2 full-thickness defect in the right ventricular free wall. Sixteen dogs were divided into two equal groups of eight each. The defect in one group was repaired with a UBM scaffold and the defect in the second group was repaired with a Dacron patch. Each group was divided into two equal subgroups (n = 4), one of which was sacrificed 15 min after surgical repair and the other of which was sacrificed after 8 weeks. Global right ventricular contractility was similar in all four subgroups groups at the time of sacrifice. However, 8 weeks after implantation the UBM-treated defect area showed significantly greater (p < 0.05) regional systolic contraction compared to the myocardial defects repaired with by Dacron (3.3 +/- 1.3% vs. -1.8 +/- 1.1%; respectively). Unlike the Dacron-repaired region, the UBM-repaired region showed an increase in systolic contraction over the 8-week implantation period (-4.2 +/- 1.7% at the time of implantation vs. 3.3 +/- 1.3% at 8 weeks). Histological analysis showed the expected fibrotic reaction surrounding the embedded Dacron material with no evidence for myocardial regeneration. Histologic examination of the UBM scaffold site showed cardiomyocytes accounting for approximately 30% of the remodeled tissue. The cardiomyocytes were arranged in an apparently randomly dispersed pattern throughout the entire tissue specimen and stained positive for alpha- sarcomeric actinin and Connexin 43. The thickness of the UBM graft site increased greatly from the time of implantation to the 8-week sacrifice time point when it was approximately the thickness of the normal right ventricular wall. Histologic examination suggested complete degradation of the originally implanted ECM scaffold and replacement by host tissues. We conclude that UBM facilitates a constructive remodeling of myocardial tissue when used as replacement scaffold for excisional defects.

Human mesenchymal stem cells as a gene delivery system to create cardiac pacemakers.

We tested the ability of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) to deliver a biological pacemaker to the heart. hMSCs transfected with a cardiac pacemaker gene, mHCN2, by electroporation expressed high levels of Cs+-sensitive current (31.1+/-3.8 pA/pF at -150 mV) activating in the diastolic potential range with reversal potential of -37.5+/-1.0 mV, confirming the expressed current as I(f)-like. The expressed current responded to isoproterenol with an 11-mV positive shift in activation. Acetylcholine had no direct effect, but in the presence of isoproterenol, shifted activation 15 mV negative. Transfected hMSCs influenced beating rate in vitro when plated onto a localized region of a coverslip and overlaid with neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. The coculture beating rate was 93+/-16 bpm when hMSCs were transfected with control plasmid (expressing only EGFP) and 161+/-4 bpm when hMSCs were expressing both EGFP+mHCN2 (P<0.05). We next injected 10(6) hMSCs transfected with either control plasmid or mHCN2 gene construct subepicardially in the canine left ventricular wall in situ. During sinus arrest, all control (EGFP) hearts had spontaneous rhythms (45+/-1 bpm, 2 of right-sided origin and 2 of left). In the EGFP+mHCN2 group, 5 of 6 animals developed spontaneous rhythms of left-sided origin (rate=61+/-5 bpm; P<0.05). Moreover, immunostaining of the injected regions demonstrated the presence of hMSCs forming gap junctions with adjacent myocytes. These findings demonstrate that genetically modified hMSCs can express functional HCN2 channels in vitro and in vivo, mimicking overexpression of HCN2 genes in cardiac myocytes, and represent a novel delivery system for pacemaker genes into the heart or other electrical syncytia.

Caspases and p38 MAPK regulate endothelial cell adhesiveness for mesenchymal stem cells.

Mesenchymal stem cells natively circulating or delivered into the blood stream home to sites of injury. The mechanism of mesenchymal stem cell homing to sites of injury is poorly understood. We have shown that the development of apoptosis in endothelial cells stimulates endothelial cell adhesiveness for mesenchymal stem cells. Adhesion of mesenchymal stem cells to apoptotic endothelial cells depends on the activation of endothelial caspases and p38 MAPK. Activation of p38 MAPK in endothelial cells has a primary effect while the activation of caspases potentiates the mesenchymal stem cell adhesion. Overall, our study of the mesenchymal stem cell interaction with endothelial cells indicates that mesenchymal stem cells recognize and specifically adhere to distressed/apoptotic endothelial cells.

Von willebrand factor increases endothelial cell adhesiveness for human mesenchymal stem cells by activating p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase.

INTRODUCTION: Delivered systemically or natively circulating mesenchymal stem cells accumulate in injured tissues. During homing mesenchymal stem cells adhere to endothelial cells and infiltrate underlying tissue. Previously we have shown that adhesiveness of endothelial cells for mesenchymal stem cells correlates with the inhibition of mitochondrial function of endothelial cells and secretion of von Willebrand factor. We hypothesized that von Willebrand factor is an auto/paracrine regulator of endothelial cell adhesiveness and studied the effect of von Willebrand factor on adhesion of mesenchymal stem cells to endothelial cells. METHODS: We used Affymetrix DNA microarrays, human protein phospho-MAPK array, Western blot, cell-based ELISA and flow cytometry analysis to study the activation of endothelial cells by von Willebrand factor. Cell adhesion assay and protein kinase inhibitors were used to evaluate the role of mitogen-activated protein kinases in the regulation of endothelial cell adhesiveness for mesenchymal stem cell. RESULTS: Treatment of endothelial cells with von Willebrand factor stimulated the mesenchymal stem cell adhesion in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Mesenchymal stem cells did not adhere to immobilized von Willebrand factor and did not express receptors for von Willebrand factor suggesting that the stimulation of the mesenchymal stem cell adhesion is a result of endothelial cell activation with von Willebrand factor. Treatment of endothelial cells with von Willebrand factor activated ERK-1,2 and p38 MAPK without an effect on gene or cell surface expression of E-selectin, P-selectin, VCAM1 and ICAM1. Inhibition of p38 MAPK, but not ERK-1,2, in endothelial cells completely abrogated the stimulation of the mesenchymal stem cell adhesion by von Willebrand factor. CONCLUSIONS: Von Willebrand factor is an auto/paracrine regulator of endothelial cells. Activation of p38 MAPK in endothelial cells by von Willebrand factor is responsible for the regulation of endothelial cell adhesiveness for mesenchymal stem cells.

Increased myocyte content and mechanical function within a tissue-engineered myocardial patch following implantation.

During the past few years, studies involving the implantation of stem cells, chemical factors, and scaffolds have demonstrated the ability to augment the mammalian heart's native regenerative capacity. Scaffolds comprised of extracellular matrix (ECM) have been used to repair myocardial defects. These scaffolds become populated with myocytes and provide regional contractile function, but quantification of the myocyte population has not yet been conducted. The purpose of this study was to quantitate the myocyte content within the ECM bioscaffold and to correlate this cell population with the regional mechanical function over time. Xenogenic ECM scaffolds derived from porcine urinary bladder were implanted into a full-thickness, surgically induced, right ventricular-free wall defect in a dog model. Zero, 2, and 8 weeks following implantation, regional function and myocyte content were determined in each patch region. Regional function did not significantly increase from 0 to 2 weeks. At 8 weeks, however, regional stroke work increased to 3.7 +/- 0.7% and systolic contraction increased to 4.4 +/- 1.2%. The myocyte content also significantly increased during that period generating a linear relationship between regional function and myocyte content. In conclusion, ECM used as a myocardial patch increases both the regional function and the myocyte content over time. The mechanical function generated in the patch region is correlated with the quantity of local tissue myocytes.

Culturing of human mesenchymal stem cells as three-dimensional aggregates induces functional expression of CXCR4 that regulates adhesion to endothelial cells.

Culture-expanded human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) are increasingly used in a variety of preclinical and clinical studies. However, these cells have a low rate of engraftment to bone marrow or damaged tissues. Several laboratories have shown that during isolation and subculturing mesenchymal stem cells quickly lose the expression of CXCR4, the key receptor responsible for lymphocytes and hematopoietic stem cell homing. Here we show that culturing of hMSCs as three-dimensional aggregates (hMSC spheroids) restores CXCR4 functional expression. Expression of CXCR4 inversely correlates with the secretion of SDF-1 by hMSCs. Cells from hMSC spheroids up-regulate expression of CD49b, the alpha2 integrin subunit, and suppress the expression of CD49d, the alpha4 integrin subunit. Transfer of cells from the spheroids back to a monolayer suppresses the expression of CXCR4 and CD49b and restores the expression of CD49d. Treatment of cells from the spheroids with SDF-1 leads to CXCR4 internalization and activation of ERK-1,2. Adhesion of hMSCs to human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) was investigated. SDF-1, AMD-3100, or exposure of HUVECs to hypoxia did not affect adhesion of hMSCs from a monolayer to HUVECs. Adhesion of cells from hMSC spheroids to HUVECs was stimulated by SDF-1, AMD-3100, or by exposure of HUVECs to hypoxia. Stimulatory effects of hypoxia and addition of SDF-1 or AMD-3100 were not additive. Overall, our data indicate that the expression of CXCR4 by hMSCs regulates hMSC adhesion to endothelial cells.

Enhanced recovery of mechanical function in the canine heart by seeding an extracellular matrix patch with mesenchymal stem cells committed to a cardiac lineage.

The need to regenerate tissue is paramount, especially for the heart that lacks the ability to regenerate after injury. The urinary bladder extracellular matrix (ECM), when used to repair a right ventricular defect, successfully regenerated some mechanical function. The objective of the current study was to determine whether the regenerative effect of ECM could be improved by seeding the patch with human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) enhanced to differentiate down a cardiac linage. hMSCs were used to form three-dimensional spheroids. The expression of cardiac proteins was determined in cells exposed to the spheroid formation and compared with nonmanipulated hMSCs. To determine whether functional calcium channels were present, the cells were patch clamped. To evaluate the ability of these cells to regenerate mechanical function, the spheroids were seeded on ECM and then implanted into the canine heart to repair a full-thickness right ventricular defect. As a result, many of the cells spreading from the spheroids expressed cardiac-specific proteins, including sarcomeric alpha-actinin, cardiotin, and atrial natriuretic peptide, as well as the cell cycle markers cyclin D1 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen. A calcium current similar in amplitude to that of ventricular myocytes was present in 16% of the cells. The cardiogenic cell-seeded scaffolds increased the regional mechanical function in the canine heart compared with the unmanipulated hMSC-seeded scaffolds. In addition, the cells prelabeled with fluorescent markers demonstrated myocyte-specific actinin staining with sarcomere spacing similar to that of normal myocytes. In conclusion, the spheroid-derived cells express cardiac-specific proteins and demonstrate a calcium current similar to adult ventricular myocytes. When these cells are implanted into the canine heart, some of these cells appear striated and mechanical function is improved compared with the unmanipulated hMSCs. Further investigation will be required to determine whether the increased mechanical function is due to a differentiation of the cardiogenic cells to myocytes or to other effects.

Mesenchymal stem cells support migration, extracellular matrix invasion, proliferation, and survival of endothelial cells in vitro.

We investigated effects of the paracrine factors secreted by human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) on endothelial cell migration, extracellular matrix invasion, proliferation, and survival in vitro. Human mesenchymal stem cells were cultured as a monolayer or as three-dimensional aggregates in hanging drops (hMSC spheroids). We performed analysis of paracrine factors in medium conditioned by a monolayer of hMSCs and hMSC spheroids. Concentrations of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), basic fibroblast growth factor, angiogenin, procathepsin B, interleukin (IL)-11, and bone morphogenic protein 2 were increased 5-20 times in medium conditioned by hMSC spheroids, whereas concentrations of IL-6, IL-8, and monocyte hemoattractant protein-1 were not increased. Concentrations of VEGF and angiogenin in medium conditioned by hMSC spheroids showed a weak dependence on the presence of serum, which allows serum-free conditioned medium with elevated concentrations of angiogenic cytokines to be obtained. Medium conditioned by hMSC spheroids was more effective in stimulation of umbilical vein endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and basement membrane invasion than medium conditioned by a monolayer of hMSCs. This medium also promotes endothelial cell survival in vitro. We suggest that culturing of hMSCs as three-dimensional cellular aggregates provides a method to concentrate proangiogenic factors secreted by hMSCs and allows for reduction of serum concentration in conditioned medium. Our data support the hypothesis that hMSCs serve as trophic mediators for endothelial cells. Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest is found at the end of this article.

Finding fluorescent needles in the cardiac haystack: tracking human mesenchymal stem cells labeled with quantum dots for quantitative in vivo three-dimensional fluorescence analysis.

Stem cells show promise for repair of damaged cardiac tissue. Little is known with certainty, however, about the distribution of these cells once introduced in vivo. Previous attempts at tracking delivered stem cells have been hampered by the autofluorescence of host tissue and limitations of existing labeling techniques. We have developed a novel loading approach to stably label human mesenchymal stem cells with quantum dot (QD) nanoparticles. We report the optimization and validation of this long-term tracking technique and highlight several important biological applications by delivering labeled cells to the mammalian heart. The bright QD crystals illuminate exogenous stem cells in histologic sections for at least 8 weeks following delivery and permit, for the first time, the complete three-dimensional reconstruction of the locations of all stem cells following injection into the heart. Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest is found at the end of this article.

Insulin stimulates phosphorylation of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor by the insulin receptor, creating a potent feedback inhibitor of its tyrosine kinase.

Insulin counterregulates catecholamine action at several levels, primarily in liver, fat, and adipose tissue. Herein we observe that expression of increased levels of beta(2)-adrenergic receptor increasingly inhibits insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of its primary downstream substrates (IRS-1,2). In Chinese hamster ovary cells, the insulin receptor phosphorylates dominantly Tyr(364) in the C-terminal cytoplasmic domain of the beta-receptor. A Y364A mutant form of the beta(2)-adrenergic, in contrast, loses it ability to inhibit insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of IRS-1,2. Upon phosphorylation, the C-terminal cytoplasmic domain of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor demonstrates a potent inhibitory feedback action that can block both insulin-stimulated autophosphorylation of the insulin receptor and phosphorylation of IRS-1,2 in NIH mouse 3T3-L1 adipocyte membranes. Studies in vitro with purified insulin receptor and the C-terminal cytoplasmic domain of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor demonstrate that the tyrosine-phosphorylated beta-receptor domain is a potent counterregulatory inhibitor of the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase.

Angiotensin receptor type 1 forms a complex with the transient outward potassium channel Kv4.3 and regulates its gating properties and intracellular localization.

We report a novel signal transduction complex of the angiotensin receptor type 1. In this complex the angiotensin receptor type 1 associates with the potassium channel alpha-subunit Kv4.3 and regulates its intracellular distribution and gating properties. Co-localization of Kv4.3 with angiotensin receptor type 1 and fluorescent resonance energy transfer between those two proteins labeled with cyan and yellow-green variants of green fluorescent protein revealed that Kv4.3 and angiotensin receptor type I are located in close proximity to each other in the cell. The angiotensin receptor type 1 also co-immunoprecipitates with Kv4.3 from canine ventricle or when co-expressed with Kv4.3 and its beta-subunit KChIP2 in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Treatment of the cells with angiotensin II results in the internalization of Kv4.3 in a complex with the angiotensin receptor type 1. When stimulated with angiotensin II, angiotensin receptors type 1 modulate gating properties of the remaining Kv4.3 channels on the cell surface by shifting their activation voltage threshold to more positive values. We hypothesize that the angiotensin receptor type 1 provides its internalization molecular scaffold to Kv4.3 and in this way regulates the cell surface representation of the ion channel.

Akt mediates sequestration of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor in response to insulin.

The counterregulation of catecholamine action by insulin includes insulin-stimulated sequestration of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor. Herein we examined the signaling downstream of insulin receptor activation, focusing upon the role of 1-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and the serine-threonine protein kinase Akt (also known as protein kinase B) in the internalization of beta(2)-adrenergic receptors. Inhibition of 1-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase by LY294002 blocks insulin-induced sequestration of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor, implicating Akt in downstream signaling to the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor. Phosphorylation studies of the C-terminal cytoplasmic domain of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor by Akt in vitro identified Ser(345) and Ser(346) within a consensus motif for Akt phosphorylation. Double mutation (i.e. S345A/S346A) within this motif abolishes insulin counterregulation of beta-adrenergic stimulation of cyclic AMP accumulation as well as insulin-stimulated sequestration. Furthermore, expression of constitutively activated Akt (T308D/S473D) mimics insulin action on cyclic AMP responses and beta(2)-adrenergic receptor internalization. Expression of the dominant-negative version of Akt (K179A/T308A/S473A), in contrast, abolishes both insulin counterregulation of the cyclic AMP response as well as insulin-stimulated sequestration of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor. The action of the serine-threonine protein kinase Akt in insulin counterregulation mirrors the central role of protein kinase A in beta-agonist-induced desensitization.

Human mesenchymal stem cells make cardiac connexins and form functional gap junctions.

Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) are a multipotent cell population with the potential to be a cellular repair or delivery system provided that they communicate with target cells such as cardiac myocytes via gap junctions. Immunostaining revealed typical punctate staining for Cx43 and Cx40 along regions of intimate cell-to-cell contact between hMSCs. The staining patterns for Cx45 rather were typified by granular cytoplasmic staining. hMSCs exhibited cell-to-cell coupling to each other, to HeLa cells transfected with Cx40, Cx43 and Cx45 and to acutely isolated canine ventricular myocytes. The junctional currents (I(j)) recorded between hMSC pairs exhibited quasi-symmetrical and asymmetrical voltage (V(j)) dependence. I(j) records from hMSC-HeLaCx43 and hMSC-HeLaCx40 cell pairs also showed symmetrical and asymmetrical V(j) dependence, while hMSC-HeLaCx45 pairs always produced asymmetrical I(j) with pronounced V(j) gating when the Cx45 side was negative. Symmetrical I(j) suggests that the dominant functional channel is homotypic, while the asymmetrical I(j) suggests the activity of another channel type (heterotypic, heteromeric or both). The hMSCs exhibited a spectrum of single channels with transition conductances (gamma(j)) of 30-80 pS. The macroscopic I(j) obtained from hMSC-cardiac myocyte cell pairs exhibited asymmetrical V(j) dependence, while single channel events revealed gamma(j) of the size range 40-100 pS. hMSC coupling via gap junctions to other cell types provides the basis for considering them as a therapeutic repair or cellular delivery system to syncytia such as the myocardium.