Disrupting the cortical actin cytoskeleton points to two distinct mechanisms of yeast [PSI+] prion formation.

Mammalian and fungal prions arise de novo; however, the mechanism is poorly understood in molecular terms. One strong possibility is that oxidative damage to the non-prion form of a protein may be an important trigger influencing the formation of its heritable prion conformation. We have examined the oxidative stress-induced formation of the yeast [PSI+] prion, which is the altered conformation of the Sup35 translation termination factor. We used tandem affinity purification (TAP) and mass spectrometry to identify the proteins which associate with Sup35 in a tsa1 tsa2 antioxidant mutant to address the mechanism by which Sup35 forms the [PSI+] prion during oxidative stress conditions. This analysis identified several components of the cortical actin cytoskeleton including the Abp1 actin nucleation promoting factor, and we show that deletion of the ABP1 gene abrogates oxidant-induced [PSI+] prion formation. The frequency of spontaneous [PSI+] prion formation can be increased by overexpression of Sup35 since the excess Sup35 increases the probability of forming prion seeds. In contrast to oxidant-induced [PSI+] prion formation, overexpression-induced [PSI+] prion formation was only modestly affected in an abp1 mutant. Furthermore, treating yeast cells with latrunculin A to disrupt the formation of actin cables and patches abrogated oxidant-induced, but not overexpression-induced [PSI+] prion formation, suggesting a mechanistic difference in prion formation. [PIN+], the prion form of Rnq1, localizes to the IPOD (insoluble protein deposit) and is thought to influence the aggregation of other proteins. We show Sup35 becomes oxidized and aggregates during oxidative stress conditions, but does not co-localize with Rnq1 in an abp1 mutant which may account for the reduced frequency of [PSI+] prion formation.

Oxidative stress conditions increase the frequency of de novo formation of the yeast [PSI+] prion.

Prions are self-perpetuating amyloid protein aggregates which underlie various neurodegenerative diseases in mammals and heritable traits in yeast. The molecular basis of how yeast and mammalian prions form spontaneously into infectious amyloid-like structures is poorly understood. We have explored the hypothesis that oxidative stress is a general trigger for prion formation using the yeast [PSI(+)] prion, which is the altered conformation of the Sup35 translation termination factor. We show that the frequency of [PSI(+)] prion formation is elevated under conditions of oxidative stress and in mutants lacking key antioxidants. We detect increased oxidation of Sup35 methionine residues in antioxidant mutants and show that overexpression of methionine sulphoxide reductase abrogates both the oxidation of Sup35 and its conversion to the [PSI(+)] prion. [PSI(+)] prion formation is particularly elevated in a mutant lacking the Sod1 Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase. We have used fluorescence microscopy to show that the de novo appearance of [PSI(+)] is both rapid and increased in frequency in this mutant. Finally, electron microscopy analysis of native Sup35 reveals that similar fibrillar structures are formed in both the wild-type and antioxidant mutants. Together, our data indicate that oxidative stress is a general trigger of [PSI(+) formation, which can be alleviated by antioxidant defenses.

Integrity of SRP RNA is ensured by La and the nuclear RNA quality control machinery.

The RNA component of signal recognition particle (SRP) is transcribed by RNA polymerase III, and most steps in SRP biogenesis occur in the nucleolus. Here, we examine processing and quality control of the yeast SRP RNA (scR1). In common with other pol III transcripts, scR1 terminates in a U-tract, and mature scR1 retains a U4-5 sequence at its 3' end. In cells lacking the exonuclease Rex1, scR1 terminates in a longer U5-6 tail that presumably represents the primary transcript. The 3' U-tract of scR1 is protected from aberrant processing by the La homologue, Lhp1 and overexpressed Lhp1 apparently competes with both the RNA surveillance system and SRP assembly factors. Unexpectedly, the TRAMP and exosome nuclear RNA surveillance complexes are also implicated in protecting the 3' end of scR1, which accumulates in the nucleolus of cells lacking the activities of these complexes. Misassembled scR1 has a primary degradation pathway in which Rrp6 acts early, followed by TRAMP-stimulated exonuclease degradation by the exosome. We conclude that the RNA surveillance machinery has key roles in both SRP biogenesis and quality control of the RNA, potentially facilitating the decision between these alternative fates.

2A peptides provide distinct solutions to driving stop-carry on translational recoding.

Expression of viral proteins frequently includes non-canonical decoding events ('recoding') during translation. '2A' oligopeptides drive one such event, termed 'stop-carry on' recoding. Nascent 2A peptides interact with the ribosomal exit tunnel to dictate an unusual stop codon-independent termination of translation at the final Pro codon of 2A. Subsequently, translation 'reinitiates' on the same codon, two individual proteins being generated from one open reading frame. Many 2A peptides have been identified, and they have a conserved C-terminal motif. Little similarity is present in the N-terminal portions of these peptides, which might suggest that these amino acids are not important in the 2A reaction. However, mutagenesis indicates that identity of the amino acid at nearly all positions of a single 2A peptide is important for activity. Each 2A may then represent a specific solution for positioning the conserved C-terminus within the peptidyl-transferase centre to promote recoding. Nascent 2A peptide:ribosome interactions are suggested to alter ribosomal fine structure to discriminate against prolyl-tRNA(Pro) and promote termination in the absence of a stop codon. Such structural modifications may account for our observation that replacement of the final Pro codon of 2A with any stop codon both stalls ribosome processivity and inhibits nascent chain release.

Orchestrating ribosomal activity from inside: effects of the nascent chain on the peptidyltransferase centre.

Ribosomal progression through the open reading frames within mRNAs is frequently considered as uneventful when compared with the highly regulated initiation step. However, both RNA and nascent peptide can interact with the ribosome to influence how translation proceeds and can modify gene expression in several ways. 2A peptides are a class of sequences that, as nascent chains, pause ribosomes and drive a translation-termination reaction on a sense (proline) codon, followed by continued downstream translation. In the present paper, what is known about the 2A reaction is discussed, and 2A is compared with other sequences that, as nascent peptides, pause or stall translation.

[Non-canonical decoding events at stop codons in eukaryotes].

Regulation of protein synthesis at translation termination is a relatively under-explored, but rapidly expanding field. Recent advances in elucidating the mechanism of translation termination are helping to understand non-canonical events associated with translation termination. These "recoding" events include read-through of stop-codons, insertion of unusual amino acids such as selenocysteine and production of several polypeptides from one open reading frame. This review summarises data on termination-dependent recoding events, and proposes that there are two types of stop codon-associated sequences optimized to perform different functions: termination of translation per se or alternative elongation events.

Autophagy protects against de novo formation of the [PSI+] prion in yeast.

Prions are self-propagating, infectious proteins that underlie several neurodegenerative diseases. The molecular basis underlying their sporadic formation is poorly understood. We show that autophagy protects against de novo formation of [PSI(+)], which is the prion form of the yeast Sup35 translation termination factor. Autophagy is a cellular degradation system, and preventing autophagy by mutating its core components elevates the frequency of spontaneous [PSI(+)] formation. Conversely, increasing autophagic flux by treating cells with the polyamine spermidine suppresses prion formation in mutants that normally show a high frequency of de novo prion formation. Autophagy also protects against the de novo formation of another prion, namely the Rnq1/[PIN(+)] prion, which is not related in sequence to the Sup35/[PSI(+)] prion. We show that growth under anaerobic conditions in the absence of molecular oxygen abrogates Sup35 protein damage and suppresses the high frequency of [PSI(+)] formation in an autophagy mutant. Autophagy therefore normally functions to remove oxidatively damaged Sup35, which accumulates in cells grown under aerobic conditions, but in the absence of autophagy, damaged/misfolded Sup35 undergoes structural transitions favoring its conversion to the propagatable [PSI(+)] form.

Site-specific release of nascent chains from ribosomes at a sense codon.

"2A" oligopeptides are autonomous elements containing a D(V/I)EXNPGP motif at the C terminus. Protein synthesis from an open reading frame containing an internal 2A coding sequence yields two separate polypeptides, corresponding to sequences up to and including 2A and those downstream. We show that the 2A reaction occurs in the ribosomal peptidyltransferase center. Ribosomes pause at the end of the 2A coding sequence, over the glycine and proline codons, and the nascent chain up to and including this glycine is released. Translation-terminating release factors eRF1 and eRF3 play key roles in the reaction. On the depletion of eRF1, a greater proportion of ribosomes extend through the 2A coding sequence, yielding the full-length protein. In contrast, impaired eRF3 GTPase activity leads to many ribosomes failing to translate beyond 2A. Further, high-level expression of a 2A peptide-containing protein inhibits the growth of cells compromised for release factor activity and leads to errors in stop codon recognition. We propose that the nascent 2A peptide interacts with ribosomes to drive a highly unusual and specific "termination" reaction, despite the presence of a proline codon in the A site. After this, the majority of ribosomes continue translation, generating the separate downstream product.

Dissection of a co-translational nascent chain separation event.

Some RNA and protein sequences are capable of directing changes to the course of translation from that expected from the mRNA sequence, and this process is termed translational 'recoding'. 'CHYSEL' peptides are approximately 19-amino-acid sequences found in many viral genomes. When translated at internal portions of polypeptides, they yield co-translational separation of the nascent chain at their C-termini. We dissected the reaction promoted by CHYSEL sequences using yeast genetics and in vitro translation systems. Our results indicate that the reaction occurs within the peptidyltransferase centre of the ribosome where the nascent chain is hydrolytically released from tRNA despite the presence of further sense codons.