TMPRSS2 and glycan receptors synergistically facilitate coronavirus entry.

The entry of coronaviruses is initiated by spike recognition of host cellular receptors, involving proteinaceous and/or glycan receptors. Recently, TMPRSS2 was identified as the proteinaceous receptor for HCoV-HKU1 alongside sialoglycan as a glycan receptor. However, the underlying mechanisms for viral entry remain unknown. Here, we investigated the HCoV-HKU1C spike in the inactive, glycan-activated, and functionally anchored states, revealing that sialoglycan binding induces a conformational change of the NTD and promotes the neighboring RBD of the spike to open for TMPRSS2 recognition, exhibiting a synergistic mechanism for the entry of HCoV-HKU1. The RBD of HCoV-HKU1 features an insertion subdomain that recognizes TMPRSS2 through three previously undiscovered interfaces. Furthermore, structural investigation of HCoV-HKU1A in combination with mutagenesis and binding assays confirms a conserved receptor recognition pattern adopted by HCoV-HKU1. These studies advance our understanding of the complex viral-host interactions during entry, laying the groundwork for developing new therapeutics against coronavirus-associated diseases.

Multiple pathways for SARS-CoV-2 resistance to nirmatrelvir.

Nirmatrelvir, an oral antiviral targeting the 3CL protease of SARS-CoV-2, has been demonstrated to be clinically useful against COVID-19 (refs. 1,2). However, because SARS-CoV-2 has evolved to become resistant to other therapeutic modalities3-9, there is a concern that the same could occur for nirmatrelvir. Here we examined this possibility by in vitro passaging of SARS-CoV-2 in nirmatrelvir using two independent approaches, including one on a large scale. Indeed, highly resistant viruses emerged from both and their sequences showed a multitude of 3CL protease mutations. In the experiment peformed with many replicates, 53 independent viral lineages were selected with mutations observed at 23 different residues of the enzyme. Nevertheless, several common mutational pathways to nirmatrelvir resistance were preferred, with a majority of the viruses descending from T21I, P252L or T304I as precursor mutations. Construction and analysis of 13 recombinant SARS-CoV-2 clones showed that these mutations mediated only low-level resistance, whereas greater resistance required accumulation of additional mutations. E166V mutation conferred the strongest resistance (around 100-fold), but this mutation resulted in a loss of viral replicative fitness that was restored by compensatory changes such as L50F and T21I. Our findings indicate that SARS-CoV-2 resistance to nirmatrelvir does readily arise via multiple pathways in vitro, and the specific mutations observed herein form a strong foundation from which to study the mechanism of resistance in detail and to inform the design of next-generation protease inhibitors.

Molecular mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 resistance to nirmatrelvir.

Nirmatrelvir is a specific antiviral drug that targets the main protease (Mpro) of SARS-CoV-2 and has been approved to treat COVID-191,2. As an RNA virus characterized by high mutation rates, whether SARS-CoV-2 will develop resistance to nirmatrelvir is a question of concern. Our previous studies have shown that several mutational pathways confer resistance to nirmatrelvir, but some result in a loss of viral replicative fitness, which is then compensated for by additional alterations3. The molecular mechanisms for this observed resistance are unknown. Here we combined biochemical and structural methods to demonstrate that alterations at the substrate-binding pocket of Mpro can allow SARS-CoV-2 to develop resistance to nirmatrelvir in two distinct ways. Comprehensive studies of the structures of 14 Mpro mutants in complex with drugs or substrate revealed that alterations at the S1 and S4 subsites substantially decreased the level of inhibitor binding, whereas alterations at the S2 and S4' subsites unexpectedly increased protease activity. Both mechanisms contributed to nirmatrelvir resistance, with the latter compensating for the loss in enzymatic activity of the former, which in turn accounted for the restoration of viral replicative fitness, as observed previously3. Such a profile was also observed for ensitrelvir, another clinically relevant Mpro inhibitor. These results shed light on the mechanisms by which SARS-CoV-2 evolves to develop resistance to the current generation of protease inhibitors and provide the basis for the design of next-generation Mpro inhibitors.

Structure of Mpro from SARS-CoV-2 and discovery of its inhibitors.

A new coronavirus, known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is the aetiological agent responsible for the 2019-2020 viral pneumonia outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)1-4. Currently, there are no targeted therapeutic agents for the treatment of this disease, and effective treatment options remain very limited. Here we describe the results of a programme that aimed to rapidly discover lead compounds for clinical use, by combining structure-assisted drug design, virtual drug screening and high-throughput screening. This programme focused on identifying drug leads that target main protease (Mpro) of SARS-CoV-2: Mpro is a key enzyme of coronaviruses and has a pivotal role in mediating viral replication and transcription, making it an attractive drug target for SARS-CoV-25,6. We identified a mechanism-based inhibitor (N3) by computer-aided drug design, and then determined the crystal structure of Mpro of SARS-CoV-2 in complex with this compound. Through a combination of structure-based virtual and high-throughput screening, we assayed more than 10,000 compounds-including approved drugs, drug candidates in clinical trials and other pharmacologically active compounds-as inhibitors of Mpro. Six of these compounds inhibited Mpro, showing half-maximal inhibitory concentration values that ranged from 0.67 to 21.4 µM. One of these compounds (ebselen) also exhibited promising antiviral activity in cell-based assays. Our results demonstrate the efficacy of our screening strategy, which can lead to the rapid discovery of drug leads with clinical potential in response to new infectious diseases for which no specific drugs or vaccines are available.

Structural basis for replicase polyprotein cleavage and substrate specificity of main protease from SARS-CoV-2.

The main protease (Mpro) of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a key enzyme, which extensively digests CoV replicase polyproteins essential for viral replication and transcription, making it an attractive target for antiviral drug development. However, the molecular mechanism of how Mpro of SARS-CoV-2 digests replicase polyproteins, releasing the nonstructural proteins (nsps), and its substrate specificity remain largely unknown. Here, we determine the high-resolution structures of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro in its resting state, precleavage state, and postcleavage state, constituting a full cycle of substrate cleavage. The structures show the delicate conformational changes that occur during polyprotein processing. Further, we solve the structures of the SARS-CoV-2 Mpro mutant (H41A) in complex with six native cleavage substrates from replicase polyproteins, and demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 Mpro can recognize sequences as long as 10 residues but only have special selectivity for four subsites. These structural data provide a basis to develop potent new inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2.

Structural basis for GTP-induced dimerization and antiviral function of guanylate-binding proteins.

Guanylate-binding proteins (GBPs) form a family of dynamin-related large GTPases which mediate important innate immune functions. They were proposed to form oligomers upon GTP binding/hydrolysis, but the molecular mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we present crystal structures of C-terminally truncated human GBP5 (hGBP51-486), comprising the large GTPase (LG) and middle (MD) domains, in both its nucleotide-free monomeric and nucleotide-bound dimeric states, together with nucleotide-free full-length human GBP2. Upon GTP-loading, hGBP51-486 forms a closed face-to-face dimer. The MD of hGBP5 undergoes a drastic movement relative to its LG domain and forms extensive interactions with the LG domain and MD of the pairing molecule. Disrupting the MD interface (for hGBP5) or mutating the hinge region (for hGBP2/5) impairs their ability to inhibit HIV-1. Our results point to a GTP-induced dimerization mode that is likely conserved among all GBP members and provide insights into the molecular determinants of their antiviral function.

The main protease and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase are two prime targets for SARS-CoV-2.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), poses an unprecedented global health crisis. It is particularly urgent to develop clinically effective therapies to contain the pandemic. The main protease (Mpro) and the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP), which are responsible for the viral polyprotein proteolytic process and viral genome replication and transcription, respectively, are two attractive drug targets for SARS-CoV-2. This review summarizes up-to-date progress in the structural and pharmacological aspects of those two key targets above. Different classes of inhibitors individually targeting Mpro and RdRP are discussed, which could promote drug development to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Structural biology of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro and drug discovery.

Since its outbreak in late 2019, the COVID-19 pandemic has drawn enormous attention worldwide as a consequence of being the most disastrous infectious disease in the past century. As one of the most immediately druggable targets of SARS-CoV-2, the main protease (Mpro) has been studied thoroughly. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of recent advances in structural studies of Mpro, which provide new knowledge about Mpro in terms of its biological function, structural characteristics, substrate specificity, and autocleavage process. We examine the remarkable strides made in targeting Mpro for drug discovery during the pandemic. We summarize insights into the current understanding of the structural features of Mpro and the discovery of existing Mpro-targeting drugs, illuminating pathways for the future development of anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapeutics.

Molecular mechanism of ensitrelvir inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 main protease and its variants.

SARS-CoV-2 poses an unprecedented threat to the world as the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic. Among a handful of therapeutics developed for the prevention and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection, ensitrelvir is the first noncovalent and nonpeptide oral inhibitor targeting the main protease (Mpro) of SARS-CoV-2, which recently received emergency regulatory approval in Japan. Here we determined a 1.8-Å structure of Mpro in complex with ensitrelvir, which revealed that ensitrelvir targets the substrate-binding pocket of Mpro, specifically recognizing its S1, S2, and S1' subsites. Further, our comprehensive biochemical and structural data have demonstrated that even though ensitrelvir and nirmatrelvir (an FDA-approved drug) belong to different types of Mpro inhibitors, both of them remain to be effective against Mpros from all five SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern, suggesting Mpro is a bona fide broad-spectrum target. The molecular mechanisms uncovered in this study provide basis for future inhibitor design.

Structure-based discovery of dual pathway inhibitors for SARS-CoV-2 entry.

Since 2019, SARS-CoV-2 has evolved rapidly and gained resistance to multiple therapeutics targeting the virus. Development of host-directed antivirals offers broad-spectrum intervention against different variants of concern. Host proteases, TMPRSS2 and CTSL/CTSB cleave the SARS-CoV-2 spike to play a crucial role in the two alternative pathways of viral entry and are characterized as promising pharmacological targets. Here, we identify compounds that show potent inhibition of these proteases and determine their complex structures with their respective targets. Furthermore, we show that applying inhibitors simultaneously that block both entry pathways has a synergistic antiviral effect. Notably, we devise a bispecific compound, 212-148, exhibiting the dual-inhibition ability of both TMPRSS2 and CTSL/CTSB, and demonstrate antiviral activity against various SARS-CoV-2 variants with different viral entry profiles. Our findings offer an alternative approach for the discovery of SARS-CoV-2 antivirals, as well as application for broad-spectrum treatment of viral pathogenic infections with similar entry pathways.

Multiple pathways for SARS-CoV-2 resistance to nirmatrelvir.

Nirmatrelvir, an oral antiviral targeting the 3CL protease of SARS-CoV-2, has been demonstrated to be clinically useful in reducing hospitalization or death due to COVID-19 1,2 . However, as SARS-CoV-2 has evolved to become resistant to other therapeutic modalities 3â€"9 , there is a concern that the same could occur for nirmatrelvir. Here, we have examined this possibility by in vitro passaging of SARS-CoV-2 in increasing concentrations of nirmatrelvir using two independent approaches, including one on a large scale in 480 wells. Indeed, highly resistant viruses emerged from both, and their sequences revealed a multitude of 3CL protease mutations. In the experiment done at a larger scale with many replicates, 53 independent viral lineages were selected with mutations observed at 23 different residues of the enzyme. Yet, several common mutational pathways to nirmatrelvir resistance were preferred, with a majority of the viruses descending from T21I, P252L, or T304I as precursor mutations. Construction and analysis of 13 recombinant SARS-CoV-2 clones, each containing a unique mutation or a combination of mutations showed that the above precursor mutations only mediated low-level resistance, whereas greater resistance required accumulation of additional mutations. E166V mutation conferred the strongest resistance (~100-fold), but this mutation resulted in a loss of viral replicative fitness that was restored by compensatory changes such as L50F and T21I. Structural explanations are discussed for some of the mutations that are proximal to the drug-binding site, as well as cross-resistance or lack thereof to ensitrelvir, another clinically important 3CL protease inhibitor. Our findings indicate that SARS-CoV-2 resistance to nirmatrelvir does readily arise via multiple pathways in vitro , and the specific mutations observed herein form a strong foundation from which to study the mechanism of resistance in detail and to inform the design of next generation protease inhibitors.

High-throughput screening identifies established drugs as SARS-CoV-2 PLpro inhibitors.

A new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has been identified as the etiologic agent for the COVID-19 outbreak. Currently, effective treatment options remain very limited for this disease; therefore, there is an urgent need to identify new anti-COVID-19 agents. In this study, we screened over 6,000 compounds that included approved drugs, drug candidates in clinical trials, and pharmacologically active compounds to identify leads that target the SARS-CoV-2 papain-like protease (PLpro). Together with main protease (Mpro), PLpro is responsible for processing the viral replicase polyprotein into functional units. Therefore, it is an attractive target for antiviral drug development. Here we discovered four compounds, YM155, cryptotanshinone, tanshinone I and GRL0617 that inhibit SARS-CoV-2 PLpro with IC50 values ranging from 1.39 to 5.63 µmol/L. These compounds also exhibit strong antiviral activities in cell-based assays. YM155, an anticancer drug candidate in clinical trials, has the most potent antiviral activity with an EC50 value of 170 nmol/L. In addition, we have determined the crystal structures of this enzyme and its complex with YM155, revealing a unique binding mode. YM155 simultaneously targets three "hot" spots on PLpro, including the substrate-binding pocket, the interferon stimulating gene product 15 (ISG15) binding site and zinc finger motif. Our results demonstrate the efficacy of this screening and repurposing strategy, which has led to the discovery of new drug leads with clinical potential for COVID-19 treatments.

Structural basis for the inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 main protease by antineoplastic drug carmofur.

The antineoplastic drug carmofur is shown to inhibit the SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro). Here, the X-ray crystal structure of Mpro in complex with carmofur reveals that the carbonyl reactive group of carmofur is covalently bound to catalytic Cys145, whereas its fatty acid tail occupies the hydrophobic S2 subsite. Carmofur inhibits viral replication in cells (EC50 = 24.30 µM) and is a promising lead compound to develop new antiviral treatment for COVID-19.