RESUMEN
PURPOSE: X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) is an inborn error of immunity caused by variants in Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK). XLA patients require lifelong immunoglobulin replacement therapy (IgRT). Only few XLA patients are indicated for allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) because of severe complications. Accordingly, the published transplantation experience in XLA is minimal. We aimed to collect clinical data of XLA patients who received HCT in an international framework and to establish appropriate transplantation criteria and methods for XLA patients. METHODS: XLA patients were recruited through a questionnaire and a literature review. The data are on patient characteristics and transplantation methods and outcomes. RESULTS: In this study, twenty-two XLA patients who underwent HCT were recruited. The indication for HCT was recurrent or life-threatening infection in sixteen patients, malignancy in three, and other factors in three. A myeloablative conditioning, reduced toxicity myeloablative conditioning (RT-MAC), and reduced intensity conditioning (RIC) were selected in four, ten, and eight patients, respectively. Engraftment was achieved in 21 patients (95%). In all patients, 2-year overall survival (OS) and event-free survival (EFS) were 86% and 77%, respectively. In patients who received RT-MAC or RIC using treosulfan, busulfan, or melphalan, 2-year OS and EFS were 82% and 71%, respectively. Finally, twenty-one patients (95%) obtained complete or stable high-level mixed chimerism (50-95%), and the 1-year discontinuation rate of IgRT was 89%. CONCLUSION: Based on the concept in which IgRT is the standard treatment for XLA, HCT may be an effective and safe alternative treatment option for XLA patients, and IgRT can be discontinued following transplantation. It is ideal to perform HCT in XLA patients for whom transplantation is indicated before they develop organ damage.
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Agammaglobulinemia , Enfermedades Genéticas Ligadas al Cromosoma X , Enfermedad Injerto contra Huésped , Trasplante de Células Madre Hematopoyéticas , Humanos , Trasplante de Células Madre Hematopoyéticas/métodos , Agammaglobulinemia/diagnóstico , Agammaglobulinemia/terapia , Agammaglobulinemia/etiología , Enfermedades Genéticas Ligadas al Cromosoma X/terapia , Enfermedades Genéticas Ligadas al Cromosoma X/etiología , Melfalán , Acondicionamiento Pretrasplante/métodos , Enfermedad Injerto contra Huésped/etiologíaRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Vaccination prevents severe morbidity and mortality from COVID-19 in the general population. The immunogenicity and efficacy of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in patients with antibody deficiency is poorly understood. OBJECTIVES: COVID-19 in patients with antibody deficiency (COV-AD) is a multi-site UK study that aims to determine the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination in patients with primary or secondary antibody deficiency, a population that suffers from severe and recurrent infection and does not respond well to vaccination. METHODS: Individuals on immunoglobulin replacement therapy or with an IgG less than 4 g/L receiving antibiotic prophylaxis were recruited from April 2021. Serological and cellular responses were determined using ELISA, live-virus neutralisation and interferon gamma release assays. SARS-CoV-2 infection and clearance were determined by PCR from serial nasopharyngeal swabs. RESULTS: A total of 5.6% (n = 320) of the cohort reported prior SARS-CoV-2 infection, but only 0.3% remained PCR positive on study entry. Seropositivity, following two doses of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, was 54.8% (n = 168) compared with 100% of healthy controls (n = 205). The magnitude of the antibody response and its neutralising capacity were both significantly reduced compared to controls. Participants vaccinated with the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine were more likely to be seropositive (65.7% vs. 48.0%, p = 0.03) and have higher antibody levels compared with the AstraZeneca vaccine (IgGAM ratio 3.73 vs. 2.39, p = 0.0003). T cell responses post vaccination was demonstrable in 46.2% of participants and were associated with better antibody responses but there was no difference between the two vaccines. Eleven vaccine-breakthrough infections have occurred to date, 10 of them in recipients of the AstraZeneca vaccine. CONCLUSION: SARS-CoV-2 vaccines demonstrate reduced immunogenicity in patients with antibody deficiency with evidence of vaccine breakthrough infection.
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COVID-19 , Enfermedades de Inmunodeficiencia Primaria , Vacunas Virales , Anticuerpos Antivirales , Vacunas contra la COVID-19 , Humanos , SARS-CoV-2RESUMEN
In March 2020, the United Kingdom Primary Immunodeficiency Network (UKPIN) established a registry of cases to collate the outcomes of individuals with PID and SID following SARS-CoV-2 infection and treatment. A total of 310 cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection in individuals with PID or SID have now been reported in the UK. The overall mortality within the cohort was 17.7% (n = 55/310). Individuals with CVID demonstrated an infection fatality rate (IFR) of 18.3% (n = 17/93), individuals with PID receiving IgRT had an IFR of 16.3% (n = 26/159) and individuals with SID, an IFR of 27.2% (n = 25/92). Individuals with PID and SID had higher inpatient mortality and died at a younger age than the general population. Increasing age, low pre-SARS-CoV-2 infection lymphocyte count and the presence of common co-morbidities increased the risk of mortality in PID. Access to specific COVID-19 treatments in this cohort was limited: only 22.9% (n = 33/144) of patients admitted to the hospital received dexamethasone, remdesivir, an anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody-based therapeutic (e.g. REGN-COV2 or convalescent plasma) or tocilizumab as a monotherapy or in combination. Dexamethasone, remdesivir, and anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody-based therapeutics appeared efficacious in PID and SID. Compared to the general population, individuals with PID or SID are at high risk of mortality following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Increasing age, low baseline lymphocyte count, and the presence of co-morbidities are additional risk factors for poor outcome in this cohort.
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Tratamiento Farmacológico de COVID-19 , COVID-19 , Síndromes de Inmunodeficiencia , Humanos , Anticuerpos Monoclonales Humanizados , Anticuerpos Neutralizantes , Anticuerpos Antivirales , COVID-19/terapia , Sueroterapia para COVID-19 , Dexametasona , Combinación de Medicamentos , Inmunización Pasiva , SARS-CoV-2 , Reino Unido/epidemiologíaAsunto(s)
Enfermedad Granulomatosa Crónica/epidemiología , Infecciones/epidemiología , Factores de Tiempo , Adolescente , Adulto , Anciano , Causas de Muerte , Niño , Preescolar , Femenino , Estudios de Seguimiento , Enfermedad Granulomatosa Crónica/mortalidad , Humanos , Lactante , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Análisis de Supervivencia , Reino Unido/epidemiología , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
Background: Individuals with primary and secondary immunodeficiency (PID/SID) were shown to be at risk of poor outcomes during the early stages of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 vaccines demonstrate reduced immunogenicity in these patients. Objectives: To understand whether the risk of severe COVID-19 in individuals with PID or SID has changed following the deployment of vaccination and therapeutics in the context of the emergence of novel viral variants of concern. Methods: The outcomes of two cohorts of patients with PID and SID were compared: the first, infected between March and July 2020, prior to vaccination and treatments, the second after these intervention became available between January 2021 and April 2022. Results: 22.7% of immunodeficient patients have been infected at least once with SARS-CoV-2 since the start of the pandemic, compared to over 70% of the general population. Immunodeficient patients were typically infected later in the pandemic when the B.1.1.529 (Omicron) variant was dominant. This delay was associated with receipt of more vaccine doses and higher pre-infection seroprevalence. Compared to March-July 2020, hospitalization rates (53.3% vs 17.9%, p<0.0001) and mortality (Infection fatality rate 20.0% vs 3.4%, p=0.0003) have significantly reduced for patients with PID but remain elevated compared to the general population. The presence of a serological response to vaccination was associated with a reduced duration of viral detection by PCR in the nasopharynx. Early outpatient treatment with antivirals or monoclonal antibodies reduced hospitalization during the Omicron wave. Conclusions: Most individuals with immunodeficiency in the United Kingdom remain SARS-CoV-2 infection naïve. Vaccination, widespread availability of outpatient treatments and, possibly, the emergence of the B.1.1.529 variant have led to significant improvements in morbidity and mortality followings SARS-CoV-2 infection since the start of the pandemic. However, individuals with PID and SID remain at significantly increased risk of poor outcomes compared to the general population; mitigation, vaccination and treatment strategies must be optimized to minimize the ongoing burden of the pandemic in these vulnerable cohorts.
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COVID-19 , Humanos , Anticuerpos Monoclonales , Antivirales , COVID-19/epidemiología , Vacunas contra la COVID-19 , Hospitalización , SARS-CoV-2/genética , Estudios Seroepidemiológicos , VacunaciónRESUMEN
Background: Patients with primary and secondary antibody deficiency are vulnerable to COVID-19 and demonstrate diminished responses following two-dose SARS-CoV-2 vaccine schedules. Third primary vaccinations have been deployed to enhance their humoral and cellular immunity. Objectives: To determine the immunogenicity of the third primary SARS-CoV-2 immunisation in a heterogeneous cohort of patients with antibody deficiency. Methods: Participants enrolled in the COV-AD study were sampled before and after their third vaccine dose. Serological and cellular responses were determined using ELISA, live-virus neutralisation and ELISPOT assays. Results: Following a two-dose schedule, 100% of healthy controls mounted a serological response to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, however, 38.6% of individuals with antibody deficiency remained seronegative. A third primary SARS-CoV-2 vaccine significantly increased anti-spike glycoprotein antibody seroprevalence from 61.4% to 76.0%, the magnitude of the antibody response, its neutralising capacity and induced seroconversion in individuals who were seronegative after two vaccine doses. Vaccine-induced serological responses were broadly cross-reactive against the SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 variant of concern, however, seroprevalence and antibody levels remained significantly lower than healthy controls. No differences in serological responses were observed between individuals who received AstraZeneca ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 and Pfizer BioNTech 162b2 during their initial two-dose vaccine schedule. SARS-CoV-2 infection-naive participants who had received a heterologous vaccine as a third dose were significantly more likely to have a detectable T cell response following their third vaccine dose (61.5% vs 11.1%). Conclusion: These data support the widespread use of third primary immunisations to enhance humoral immunity against SARS-CoV-2 in individuals with antibody deficiency.
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COVID-19 , Vacunas Virales , Anticuerpos Antivirales , Formación de Anticuerpos , Vacunas contra la COVID-19 , ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 , Humanos , SARS-CoV-2 , Estudios Seroepidemiológicos , VacunaciónRESUMEN
The activity of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL (interleukin)-1 is closely regulated in vivo via a variety of mechanisms, including both the control of IL-1 production and secretion as well as naturally occurring inhibitors of IL-1 function, such as IL-1ra (IL-1 receptor antagonist). IL-1ra is homologous with IL-1, and is able to bind but not activate the IL-1 receptor. IL-1ra can be produced by a variety of cell types, and its production is stimulated by inflammatory signals. In the present study, we show that in macrophages the TLR (Toll-like receptor)-mediated induction of IL-1ra from both its proximal and distal promoters involves the p38 and ERK1/2 (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 1/2) MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) cascades. In addition, we show that MSK1 and 2 (mitogen- and stress-activated kinase 1 and 2), kinases activated by either ERK1/2 or p38 in vivo, are required for the induction of both IL-1ra mRNA and protein. MSKs regulate IL-1ra transcription via both IL-10-dependent and -independent mechanisms in cells. Consistent with this, knockout of MSK in mice was found to result in a decrease in IL-1ra production following LPS (lipopolysaccharide) injection. MSKs therefore act as important negative regulators of inflammation following TLR activation.
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Regulación de la Expresión Génica , Proteína Antagonista del Receptor de Interleucina 1/metabolismo , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Proteínas Quinasas S6 Ribosómicas 90-kDa/fisiología , Receptores Toll-Like/metabolismo , Animales , Femenino , Inflamación , Interleucina-10/metabolismo , Lipopolisacáridos/metabolismo , Masculino , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos C57BL , Regiones Promotoras Genéticas , Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa de Transcriptasa Inversa , Proteínas Quinasas S6 Ribosómicas 90-kDa/metabolismoRESUMEN
Spleen tyrosine kinase (SYK) is a critical immune signaling molecule and therapeutic target. We identified damaging monoallelic SYK variants in six patients with immune deficiency, multi-organ inflammatory disease such as colitis, arthritis and dermatitis, and diffuse large B cell lymphomas. The SYK variants increased phosphorylation and enhanced downstream signaling, indicating gain of function. A knock-in (SYK-Ser544Tyr) mouse model of a patient variant (p.Ser550Tyr) recapitulated aspects of the human disease that could be partially treated with a SYK inhibitor or transplantation of bone marrow from wild-type mice. Our studies demonstrate that SYK gain-of-function variants result in a potentially treatable form of inflammatory disease.
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Artritis/genética , Colitis/genética , Dermatitis/genética , Linfoma de Células B Grandes Difuso/genética , Quinasa Syk/genética , Adulto , Animales , Artritis/inmunología , Artritis/patología , Artritis/terapia , Secuencia de Bases , Trasplante de Médula Ósea , Colitis/inmunología , Colitis/patología , Colitis/terapia , Dermatitis/inmunología , Dermatitis/patología , Dermatitis/terapia , Familia , Femenino , Expresión Génica , Técnicas de Sustitución del Gen , Humanos , Lactante , Linfoma de Células B Grandes Difuso/inmunología , Linfoma de Células B Grandes Difuso/patología , Linfoma de Células B Grandes Difuso/terapia , Masculino , Ratones , Ratones Noqueados , Persona de Mediana Edad , Mutación , Linaje , Inhibidores de Proteínas Quinasas/farmacología , Quinasa Syk/antagonistas & inhibidores , Quinasa Syk/deficienciaRESUMEN
Autocrine or paracrine signaling by beta interferon (IFN-ß) is essential for many of the responses of macrophages to pathogen-associated molecular patterns. This feedback loop contributes to pathological responses to infectious agents and is therefore tightly regulated. We demonstrate here that macrophage expression of IFN-ß is negatively regulated by mitogen- and stress-activated kinases 1 and 2 (MSK1/2). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced expression of IFN-ß was elevated in both MSK1/2 knockout mice and macrophages. Although MSK1 and -2 promote the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10, it did not strongly contribute to the ability of MSKs to regulate IFN-ß expression. Instead, MSK1 and -2 inhibit IFN-ß expression via the induction of dual-specificity phosphatase 1 (DUSP1), which dephosphorylates and inactivates the mitogen-activated protein kinases p38 and Jun N-terminal protein kinase (JNK). Prolonged LPS-induced activation of p38 and JNK, phosphorylation of downstream transcription factors, and overexpression of IFN-ß mRNA and protein were similar in MSK1/2 and DUSP1 knockout macrophages. Two distinct mechanisms were implicated in the overexpression of IFN-ß: first, JNK-mediated activation of c-jun, which binds to the IFN-ß promoter, and second, p38-mediated inactivation of the mRNA-destabilizing factor tristetraprolin, which we show is able to target the IFN-ß mRNA.
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Interferón beta/metabolismo , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Proteínas Quinasas S6 Ribosómicas 90-kDa/metabolismo , Tristetraprolina/metabolismo , Proteínas Quinasas p38 Activadas por Mitógenos/metabolismo , Animales , Comunicación Celular , Células Cultivadas , Regulación de la Expresión Génica/efectos de los fármacos , Interleucina-10/metabolismo , Lipopolisacáridos/farmacología , Macrófagos/efectos de los fármacos , Macrófagos/inmunología , Ratones , Fosforilación , Transducción de Señal/efectos de los fármacosRESUMEN
Chemokines, including MCP-1, are crucial to mounting an effective immune response due to their ability to recruit other immune cells. We show that sustained LPS or poly(I:C)-stimulated MCP-1 production requires an IFNß-mediated feedback loop. Consistent with this, exogenous IFNß was able to induce MCP-1 transcription in the absence of other stimuli. Blocking IFNß signaling with Ruxolitinib, a JAK inhibitor, inhibited MCP-1 transcription. The MCP-1 promoter contains potential STAT binding sites and we demonstrate that STAT1 is recruited upon IFNß stimulation. Furthermore we find that IL-10 knockout increases MCP-1 production in response to LPS, which may reflect an ability of IL-10 to repress IFNß production. Overall, these results show the importance of the balance between IFNß and IL-10 in the regulation of MCP-1.
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Comunicación Autocrina/fisiología , Quimiocina CCL2/genética , Retroalimentación Fisiológica/fisiología , Interferón beta/fisiología , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Receptores Toll-Like/fisiología , Animales , Comunicación Autocrina/efectos de los fármacos , Comunicación Autocrina/genética , Células Cultivadas , Quimiocina CCL2/metabolismo , Retroalimentación Fisiológica/efectos de los fármacos , Interferón beta/metabolismo , Interferón beta/farmacología , Interleucina-10/genética , Interleucina-10/metabolismo , Interleucina-10/fisiología , Macrófagos/efectos de los fármacos , Macrófagos/fisiología , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos C57BL , Ratones Noqueados , Receptor de Interferón alfa y beta/genética , Receptor de Interferón alfa y beta/metabolismo , Receptores Toll-Like/metabolismo , Regulación hacia Arriba/efectos de los fármacos , Regulación hacia Arriba/genéticaRESUMEN
In response to infection by fungal pathogens, the innate immune system recognises specific fungal pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) via pattern recognition receptors including the C-type lectin dectin-1 and members of the Toll Like Receptor (TLR) family. Stimulation of these receptors leads to the induction of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. The protein kinases MSK1 and 2 are known to be important in limiting inflammatory cytokine production by macrophages in response to the TLR4 agonist LPS. In this study we show that MSKs are also activated in macrophages by the fungal derived ligand zymosan, as well as the dectin-1 specific agonists curdlan and depleted zymosan, via the ERK1/2 and p38α MAPK pathways. Furthermore, we show that MSKs regulate dectin-1 induced IL-10 production, and that this regulation is dependent on the ability of MSKs to phosphorylate the transcription factor CREB. IL-10 secreted in response to zymosan was able to promote STAT3 phosphorylation via an autocrine feedback loop. Consistent with the decreased IL-10 secretion in MSK1/2 knockout macrophages, these cells also had decreased STAT3 tyrosine phosphorylation relative to wild type controls after stimulation with zymosan. We further show that the reduction in IL-10 production in the MSK1/2 macrophages results in increased secretion of IL-12p40 in response to zymosan relative to wild type controls. The production of high levels of IL-10 but low levels of IL-12 has previously been associated with an M2b or 'regulatory' macrophage phenotype, which was initially described in macrophages stimulated with a combination of immune complexes and LPS. We found that zymosan, via dectin-1 activation, also leads to the expression of SphK1 and LIGHT, markers of a regulatory like phenotype in mouse macrophages. The expression of these makers was further reinforced by the high level of IL-10 secreted in response to zymosan stimulation.
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Proteína de Unión a Elemento de Respuesta al AMP Cíclico/metabolismo , Interleucina-10/metabolismo , Lectinas Tipo C/metabolismo , Macrófagos/efectos de los fármacos , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Proteínas Quinasas S6 Ribosómicas 90-kDa/metabolismo , Animales , Células Cultivadas , Proteína de Unión a Elemento de Respuesta al AMP Cíclico/genética , Immunoblotting , Lectinas Tipo C/genética , Ratones , Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa de Transcriptasa Inversa , Proteínas Quinasas S6 Ribosómicas 90-kDa/genética , Transducción de Señal/efectos de los fármacos , Zimosan/farmacologíaRESUMEN
Prostaglandin production is catalyzed by cyclooxygenase 2 (cox-2). We demonstrate here that MSK1 and MSK2 (MSK1/2) can exert control on the induction of cox-2 mRNA by Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists. In the initial phase of cox-2 induction, MSK1/2 knockout macrophages confirmed a role for MSK in the positive regulation of transcription. However, at later time points both lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced prostaglandin and cox-2 protein levels were increased in MSK1/2 knockout. Further analysis found that while MSKs promoted cox-2 mRNA transcription, following longer LPS stimulation MSKs also promoted degradation of cox-2 mRNA. This was found to be the result of an interleukin 10 (IL-10) feedback mechanism, with endogenously produced IL-10 promoting cox-2 degradation. The ability of IL-10 to do this was dependent on the mRNA binding protein TTP through a p38/MK2-mediated mechanism. As MSKs regulate IL-10 production in response to LPS, MSK1/2 knockout results in reduced IL-10 secretion and therefore reduced feedback from IL-10 on cox-2 mRNA stability. Following LPS stimulation, this increased mRNA stability correlated to an elevated induction of both of cox-2 protein and prostaglandin secretion in MSK1/2 knockout macrophages relative to that in wild-type cells. This was not restricted to isolated macrophages, as a similar effect of MSK1/2 knockout was seen on plasma prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels following intraperitoneal injection of LPS.