Neonatal invasive candidiasis in low- and middle-income countries: Data from the NeoOBS study.

Neonatal invasive candidiasis (NIC) has significant morbidity and mortality. Reports have shown a different profile of those neonates affected with NIC and of fluconazole-resistant Candida spp. isolates in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) compared to high-income countries (HICs). We describe the epidemiology, Candida spp. distribution, treatment, and outcomes of neonates with NIC from LMICs enrolled in a global, prospective, longitudinal, observational cohort study (NeoOBS) of hospitalized infants <60 days postnatal age with sepsis (August 2018-February 2021). A total of 127 neonates from 14 hospitals in 8 countries with Candida spp. isolated from blood culture were included. Median gestational age of affected neonates was 30 weeks (IQR: 28-34), and median birth weight was 1270 gr (interquartile range [IQR]: 990-1692). Only a minority had high-risk criteria, such as being born <28 weeks, 19% (24/127), or birth weight <1000 gr, 27% (34/127). The most common Candida species were C. albicans (n = 45, 35%), C. parapsilosis (n = 38, 30%), and Candida auris (n = 18, 14%). The majority of C. albicans isolates were fluconazole susceptible, whereas 59% of C. parapsilosis isolates were fluconazole-resistant. Amphotericin B was the most common antifungal used [74% (78/105)], followed by fluconazole [22% (23/105)]. Death by day 28 post-enrollment was 22% (28/127). To our knowledge, this is the largest multi-country cohort of NIC in LMICs. Most of the neonates would not have been considered at high risk for NIC in HICs. A substantial proportion of isolates was resistant to first choice fluconazole. Understanding the burden of NIC in LMIC is essential to guide future research and treatment guidelines.

Our study describes neonates from low- and middle-income countries with neonatal invasive candidiasis (NIC). Most of them were outside the groups considered at high risk for NIC described in high-income countries. Candida spp. epidemiology was also different. The mortality was high (22%). Further research in these settings is required.

Simultaneous pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PKPD) assessment of ampicillin and gentamicin in the treatment of neonatal sepsis.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to simultaneously investigate the pharmacokinetics of ampicillin and gentamicin, currently the WHO standard of care for treating neonatal sepsis. METHODS: Pharmacokinetic data were collected in 59 neonates receiving ampicillin and gentamicin for suspected or proven sepsis in the NeoFosfo trial (NCT03453177). A panel of 23 clinical Escherichia coli isolates from neonates with sepsis, resistant to either ampicillin, gentamicin or both, were tested for susceptibility using chequerboards. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PKPD) modelling and simulations were used to compare single-agent (EUCAST MIC) and combination (chequerboard MIC) target attainment with standard dosing regimens. RESULTS: A model was established that simultaneously estimated parameters of a one-compartment ampicillin model and a two-compartment gentamicin model. A common clearance for both drugs was used (6.89 L/h/70 kg) relating to glomerular filtration (CLGFR), with an additional clearance term added for ampicillin (5.3 L/h/70 kg). Covariate modelling included a priori allometric weight and post-menstrual age scaling of clearance. Further covariate relationships on renal clearance were postnatal age and serum creatinine.Simulation-based PKPD assessments suggest good Gram-positive (MIC ≤ 0.25 mg/L) cover. However, less than one-quarter of neonates were predicted to receive efficacious coverage against Enterobacterales (MIC ≤ 2 mg/L). The benefit of the ampicillin/gentamicin combination was limited, with only 2/23 E. coli clinical strains showing FIC index < 0.5 (synergy) and most in the range 0.5-1 (suggesting additivity). Simulations showed that feasible dosing strategies would be insufficient to cover resistant strains. CONCLUSIONS: PKPD simulations showed ampicillin and gentamicin combination therapy was insufficient to cover Enterobacterales, suggesting the need for alternative empirical treatment options for neonatal sepsis.

Flomoxef and fosfomycin in combination for the treatment of neonatal sepsis in the setting of highly prevalent antimicrobial resistance.

BACKGROUND: Neonatal sepsis is a serious bacterial infection of neonates, globally killing up to 680 000 babies annually. It is frequently complicated by antimicrobial resistance, particularly in low- and middle-income country (LMIC) settings with widespread resistance to the WHO's recommended empirical regimen of ampicillin and gentamicin. OBJECTIVES: We assessed the utility of flomoxef and fosfomycin as a potential alternative empirical regimen for neonatal sepsis in these settings. METHODS: We studied the combination in a 16-arm dose-ranged hollow-fibre infection model (HFIM) experiment and chequerboard assays. We further assessed the combination using clinically relevant regimens in the HFIM with six Enterobacterales strains with a range of flomoxef/fosfomycin MICs. RESULTS: Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modelling of the HFIM experimental output, along with data from chequerboard assays, indicated synergy of this regimen in terms of bacterial killing and prevention of emergence of fosfomycin resistance. Flomoxef monotherapy was sufficient to kill 3/3 strains with flomoxef MICs ≤0.5 mg/L to sterility. Three of three strains with flomoxef MICs ≥8 mg/L were not killed by fosfomycin or flomoxef monotherapy; 2/3 of these were killed with the combination of the two agents. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that flomoxef/fosfomycin could be an efficacious and synergistic regimen for the empirical treatment of neonatal sepsis in LMIC settings with prevalent antimicrobial resistance. Our HFIM results warrant further assessment of the flomoxef/fosfomycin combination in clinical trials.

Assessment of flomoxef combined with amikacin in a hollow-fibre infection model for the treatment of neonatal sepsis in low- and middle-income healthcare settings.

BACKGROUND: Annual mortality from neonatal sepsis is an estimated 430 000-680 000 infants globally, most of which occur in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The WHO currently recommends a narrow-spectrum ß-lactam (e.g. ampicillin) and gentamicin as first-line empirical therapy. However, available epidemiological data demonstrate high rates of resistance to both agents. Alternative empirical regimens are needed. Flomoxef and amikacin are two off-patent antibiotics with potential for use in this setting. OBJECTIVES: To assess the pharmacodynamics of flomoxef and amikacin in combination. METHODS: The pharmacodynamic interaction of flomoxef and amikacin was assessed in chequerboard assays and a 16-arm dose-ranged hollow-fibre infection model (HFIM) experiment. The combination was further assessed in HFIM experiments mimicking neonatal plasma exposures of clinically relevant doses of both drugs against five Enterobacterales isolates with a range of flomoxef/amikacin MICs. RESULTS: Flomoxef and amikacin in combination were synergistic in bacterial killing in both assays and prevention of emergence of amikacin resistance in the HFIM. In the HFIM assessing neonatal-like drug exposures, the combination killed 3/5 strains to sterility, (including 2/5 that monotherapy with either drug failed to kill) and failed to kill the 2/5 strains with flomoxef MICs of 32 mg/L. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the combination of flomoxef and amikacin is synergistic and is a potentially clinically effective regimen for the empirical treatment of neonatal sepsis in LMIC settings and is therefore suitable for further assessment in a clinical trial.

Antibiotics needed to treat multidrug-resistant infections in neonates.

Infections remain a leading cause of death in neonates. The sparse antibiotic development pipeline and challenges in conducting neonatal research have resulted in few effective antibiotics being adequately studied to treat multidrug-resistant (MDR) infections in neonates, despite the increasing global mortality burden caused by antimicrobial resistance. Of 40 antibiotics approved for use in adults since 2000, only four have included dosing information for neonates in their labelling. Currently, 43 adult antibiotic clinical trials are recruiting patients, compared with only six trials recruiting neonates. We review the World Health Organization (WHO) priority pathogens list relevant to neonatal sepsis and propose a WHO multiexpert stakeholder meeting to promote the development of a neonatal priority antibiotic development list. The goal is to develop international, interdisciplinary consensus for an accelerated neonatal antibiotic development programme. This programme would enable focused research on identified priority antibiotics for neonates to reduce the excess morbidity and mortality caused by MDR infections in this vulnerable population.

Les infections demeurent l'une des principales causes de décès chez les nouveau-nés. Les rares projets de développement d'antibiotiques et les défis posés par la recherche néonatale ont entraîné une pénurie d'antibiotiques efficaces spécialement étudiés pour traiter les infections multirésistantes (MR) chez les nouveau-nés, en dépit d'une mortalité galopante due à une résistance accrue aux antimicrobiens. Sur 40 antibiotiques autorisés pour les adultes depuis 2000, quatre à peine sont munis d'un étiquetage indiquant la posologie adaptée aux nouveau-nés. Actuellement, 43 essais cliniques portant sur des antibiotiques recrutent des patients du côté des adultes, contre six seulement du côté des nouveau-nés. Dans le présent document, nous passons en revue la liste prioritaire d'agents pathogènes établie par l'Organisation mondiale de la Santé (OMS) pour soigner la septicémie néonatale et proposons de réunir, sous l'égide de l'OMS, des parties prenantes issues de plusieurs domaines d'expertise afin de promouvoir la création d'une liste prioritaire de développement d'antibiotiques destinés aux nouveau-nés. Objectif: parvenir à un consensus international et interdisciplinaire visant à accélérer le programme de mise au point d'antibiotiques à usage néonatal. Ce programme permettrait d'orienter les recherches vers des antibiotiques identifiés comme prioritaires pour les nouveau-nés, en vue de faire baisser les taux de morbidité et de mortalité excessifs qu'engendrent les infections MR au sein de cette population vulnérable.

Las infecciones siguen siendo una de las principales causas de muerte en los recién nacidos. Debido al escaso desarrollo de los antibióticos y a las dificultades para llevar a cabo la investigación neonatal, son pocos los antibióticos eficaces que se estudian de manera adecuada para tratar las infecciones multirresistentes (MR) en los recién nacidos, a pesar de la creciente carga de mortalidad mundial causada por la resistencia a los antimicrobianos. De los 40 antibióticos aprobados para su uso en adultos desde el 2000, solo cuatro han incluido información sobre la dosis para recién nacidos en su etiquetado. En la actualidad, 43 ensayos clínicos con antibióticos para adultos están reclutando pacientes, en comparación con solo seis ensayos que reclutan recién nacidos. Se revisa la lista de patógenos prioritarios de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) relevantes para la sepsis neonatal y se propone una reunión de la OMS con múltiples expertos para promover el desarrollo de una lista de antibióticos prioritarios para los recién nacidos. El objetivo es desarrollar un consenso internacional e interdisciplinario para establecer un programa acelerado de desarrollo de antibióticos neonatales. Este programa permitiría centrar la investigación en los antibióticos prioritarios identificados para los recién nacidos con el fin de reducir el exceso de morbilidad y mortalidad causado por las infecciones MR en esta población vulnerable.

Amikacin Combined with Fosfomycin for Treatment of Neonatal Sepsis in the Setting of Highly Prevalent Antimicrobial Resistance.

Antimicrobial resistance (particularly through extended-spectrum ß-lactamase and aminoglycoside-modifying enzyme production) in neonatal sepsis is a global problem, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, with significant mortality rates. High rates of resistance are reported for the current WHO-recommended first-line antibiotic regimen for neonatal sepsis, i.e., ampicillin and gentamicin. We assessed the utility of fosfomycin and amikacin as a potential alternative regimen to be used in settings of increasingly prevalent antimicrobial resistance. The combination was studied in a 16-arm dose-ranged hollow-fiber infection model (HFIM) experiment. The combination of amikacin and fosfomycin enhanced bactericidal activity and prevented the emergence of resistance, compared to monotherapy with either antibiotic. Modeling of the experimental quantitative outputs and data from checkerboard assays indicated synergy. We further assessed the combination regimen at clinically relevant doses in the HFIM with nine Enterobacterales strains with high fosfomycin and amikacin MICs and demonstrated successful kill to sterilization for 6/9 strains. From these data, we propose a novel combination breakpoint threshold for microbiological success for this antimicrobial combination against Enterobacterales strains, i.e., MICF × MICA < 256 (where MICF and MICA are the fosfomycin and amikacin MICs, respectively). Monte Carlo simulations predict that a standard fosfomycin-amikacin neonatal regimen would achieve >99% probability of pharmacodynamic success for strains with MICs below this threshold. We conclude that the combination of fosfomycin with amikacin is a viable regimen for the empirical treatment of neonatal sepsis and is suitable for further clinical assessment in a randomized controlled trial.

IV and oral fosfomycin pharmacokinetics in neonates with suspected clinical sepsis.

BACKGROUND: Fosfomycin has the potential to be re-purposed as part of a combination therapy to treat neonatal sepsis where resistance to current standard of care (SOC) is common. Limited data exist on neonatal fosfomycin pharmacokinetics and estimates of bioavailability and CSF/plasma ratio in this vulnerable population are lacking. OBJECTIVES: To generate data informing the appropriate dosing of IV and oral fosfomycin in neonates using a population pharmacokinetic analysis of plasma and CSF data. METHODS: The NeoFosfo study (NCT03453177) was a randomized trial that examined the safety and pharmacokinetics of fosfomycin comparing SOC versus SOC plus fosfomycin. Sixty-one neonates received fosfomycin (100 mg/kg IV q12h for 48 h) and then they converted to oral therapy at the same dose. Two plasma pharmacokinetic samples were taken following the first IV and oral doses, sample times were randomized to cover the whole pharmacokinetic profile and opportunistic CSF pharmacokinetic samples were collected. A population pharmacokinetic model was developed in NONMEM and simulations were performed. RESULTS: In total, 238 plasma and 15 CSF concentrations were collected. A two-compartment disposition model, with an additional CSF compartment and first-order absorption, best described the data. Bioavailability was estimated as 0.48 (95% CI = 0.347-0.775) and the CSF/plasma ratio as 0.32 (95% CI = 0.272-0.409). Allometric weight and postmenstrual age (PMA) scaling was applied; additional covariates included postnatal age (PNA) on clearance and CSF protein on CSF/plasma ratio. CONCLUSIONS: Through this analysis a population pharmacokinetic model has been developed that can be used alongside currently available pharmacodynamic targets to select a neonatal fosfomycin dose based on an infant's PMA, PNA and weight.

The role of combination therapy in the treatment of severe infections caused by carbapenem resistant gram-negatives: a systematic review of clinical studies.

BACKGROUND: Effective treatment of sepsis due to carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria (CR-GNB) remains a challenge for clinicians worldwide. In recent years, the combination of antibiotics has become the preferred treatment strategy for CR-GNB infection. However, robust evidence to support this approach is lacking. This systematic review aimed at critically evaluating all available antibiotic options for CR-GNB sepsis with particular focus on combination. METHODS: We systematically searched published literature from January 1945 until December 2018 for observational comparative and non-comparative studies and randomized trials examining any antibiotic option for CR-GNB. Studies were included if reporting microbiologically-confirmed infection caused by Acinetobacter baumannii, Enterobacteriaceae/Klebsiella spp., or Pseudomonas aeruginosa, reporting at least one of the study outcomes, and definitive antibiotic treatment. Carbapenem-resistance was defined as phenotypically-detected in vitro resistance to at least one of the following carbapenems: doripenem, ertapenem, imipenem, meropenem. Each antibiotic regimen was classified as "defined" when at least the molecular class(es) composing the regimen was detailed. Primary outcomes were 30-day and attributable mortality. Bayesian network meta-analysis (NMA) approach was selected for quantitative synthesis to explore feasibility of pooling data on antibiotic regimens. RESULTS: A total of 6306 records were retrieved and 134 studies including 11,546 patients were included: 54 studies were on Acinetobacter, 52 on Enterobacteriaceae/Klebsiella, 21 on mixed Gram-negative, and 7 on Pseudomonas. Nine (7%) were RCTs; 19 prospective cohorts (14%), 89 (66%) retrospective, and 17 (13%) case series. Forty-one studies (31%) were multicentric. Qualitative synthesis showed an heterogeneous and scattered reporting of key-clinical and microbiological variables across studies. Ninety-two distinct antibiotic regimens were identified with 47 of them (51%, 5863 patients) not reporting any details on numbers, type, dosage and in vitro activity of the included antibiotic molecules. The NMAs could not be performed for any of the selected outcome given the presence of too many disconnected components. CONCLUSION: The existing evidence is insufficient to allowing for the formulation of any evidence-based therapeutic recommendation for CR-GNB sepsis. Future studies must provide a standardized definition of antibiotic regimen to drive recommendations for using combination of antibiotics that can be reliably applied to clinical practice.

Global sales of oral antibiotics formulated for children.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate international consumption patterns of child-appropriate oral formulations of antibiotics by formulation type, with a focus on dispersible tablets, using data from a global sales database. METHOD: Antibiotic sales data for 2015 covering 74 countries and regional country groups were obtained from the MIDAS® pharmaceutical sales database, which includes samples of pharmacy wholesalers and retailers. The focus was on sales of child-appropriate oral formulations of Access antibiotics in the 2017 World Health Organization's WHO Model list of essential medicines for children. Sales volumes are expressed using a standard unit (i.e. one tablet, capsule, ampoule or vial or 5 mL of liquid). Sales were analysed by antibiotic, WHO region and antibiotic formulation. FINDINGS: Globally, 17.7 billion standard units of child-appropriate oral antibiotic formulations were sold in 2015, representing 24% of total antibiotic sales of 74.4 billion units (both oral and parenteral) in the database. The top five child-appropriate Access antibiotics by sales volume were amoxicillin, amoxicillin with clavulanic acid, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, cefalexin and ampicillin. The proportion of the top five sold for use as a syrup varied between 42% and 99%. Dispersible tablets represented only 22% of all child-appropriate oral formulation sales and made up only 15% of sales of 10 selected Access antibiotics on the model list for children. CONCLUSION: Globally most child-appropriate oral antibiotics were not sold as dispersible tablets in 2015, as recommended by WHO. There is a clear need for novel solid forms of antibiotics suitable for use in children.

A comparison of five paediatric dosing guidelines for antibiotics.

OBJECTIVE: To compare dosing guidance in the paediatric formularies of high- and middle-income countries for 32 commonly prescribed antibiotics on the World Health Organization's (WHO's) 2017 Model list of essential medicines for children. METHODS: We identified paediatric antibiotic guidelines that were either widely used internationally or originated from countries in which antibiotic use has increased markedly in recent years (i.e. Brazil, China, India, the Russian Federation and South Africa). FINDINGS: The study analysis considered five leading antibiotic guidelines: (i) the Manual of childhood infections: the blue book; (ii) the BNF (British national formulary) for children; (iii) the Red book®: 2018-2021 report of the committee on infectious diseases; (iv) WHO's Pocket book of hospital care for children; and (v) Indian National treatment guidelines for antimicrobial use in infectious diseases. There was marked heterogeneity in the recommended dosing (i.e. daily dose, age dosing bands and dose frequency) for most commonly used antibiotics. The rationale for dosing recommendations was generally unclear. CONCLUSION: The pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic and clinical evidence supporting paediatric antibiotic dosing, particularly on total doses and on age or weight dosing bands, needs to be improved. Future research should consider whether the variations in guidance identified stem from different clinical disease patterns, varying levels of antibiotic resistance or drug availability rather than historical preferences. Interested global parties could collaborate with WHO's Model list of essential medicines antibiotic working group to develop an evidence-based consensus and identify research priorities.

Changing Epidemiology of Gonorrhea in Adelaide, South Australia.

BACKGROUND: Gonorrhea is a significant public health concern. The changing epidemiology of gonorrhea in Australia has highlighted the need for detailed examination of surveillance data to determine population groups at greatest risk for infection. METHODS: We analyzed deidentified gonorrhea notification data for the years 2012 to 2017, in Adelaide (N = 3680), calculating age-adjusted notification and antibiotic resistance rates. Age, gender, year, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status were assessed for associations with gonorrhea notifications using negative binomial, log binomial and spatial autoregressive models. Maps were generated to examine spatial localization of gonorrhea rates in Adelaide. RESULTS: Gonorrhea notification rates in Adelaide increased annually, with a 153% adjusted increase in rates from 2012 to 2017, localized to specific areas and inversely associated with income levels. The increase in rates in 2016 and 2017 was associated with young heterosexuals from low income areas. Azithromycin-resistant notifications increased significantly in 2016 in young heterosexuals. Reinfections were significantly more likely in men who have sex with men than other population groups. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the changing epidemiology of gonorrhea in Adelaide from a largely men who have sex with men profile toward an increase in young heterosexual gonorrhea. This could be seen as a harbinger for future increases in heterosexually transmitted HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in Australia.

Visceral leishmaniasis relapse hazard is linked to reduced miltefosine exposure in patients from Eastern Africa: a population pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic study.

BACKGROUND: Low efficacy of miltefosine in the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis was recently observed in Eastern Africa. OBJECTIVES: To describe the pharmacokinetics and establish a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationship for miltefosine in Eastern African patients with visceral leishmaniasis, using a time-to-event approach to model relapse of disease. METHODS: Miltefosine plasma concentrations from 95 patients (48 monotherapy versus 47 combination therapy) were included in the population pharmacokinetic model using non-linear mixed effects modelling. Subsequently a time-to-event model was developed to model the time of clinical relapse. Various summary pharmacokinetic parameters (various AUCs, Time > EC50, Time > EC90), normalized within each treatment arm to allow simultaneous analysis, were evaluated as relapse hazard-changing covariates. RESULTS: A two-compartment population model with first-order absorption fitted the miltefosine pharmacokinetic data adequately. Relative bioavailability was reduced (-74%, relative standard error 4.7%) during the first week of treatment of the monotherapy arm but only the first day of the shorter combination regimen. Time to the relapse of infection could be described using a constant baseline hazard (baseline 1.8 relapses/year, relative standard error 72.7%). Miltefosine Time > EC90 improved the model significantly when added in a maximum effect function on the baseline hazard (half maximal effect with Time > EC90 6.97 days for monotherapy). CONCLUSIONS: Miltefosine drug exposure was found to be decreased in Eastern African patients with visceral leishmaniasis, due to a (transient) initial lower bioavailability. Relapse hazard was inversely linked to miltefosine exposure. Significantly lower miltefosine exposure was observed in children compared with adults, further urging the need for implementation of dose adaptations for children.

Estimating the impact of test-trace-isolate-quarantine systems on SARS-CoV-2 transmission in Australia.

BACKGROUND: Australian states and territories used test-trace-isolate-quarantine (TTIQ) systems extensively in their response to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020-2021. We report on an analysis of Australian case data to estimate the impact of test-trace-isolate-quarantine systems on SARS-CoV-2 transmission. METHODS: Our analysis uses a novel mathematical modelling framework and detailed surveillance data on COVID-19 cases including dates of infection and dates of isolation. First, we directly translate an empirical distribution of times from infection to isolation into reductions in potential for onward transmission during periods of relatively low caseloads (tens to hundreds of reported cases per day). We then apply a simulation approach, validated against case data, to assess the impact of case-initiated contact tracing on transmission during a period of relatively higher caseloads and system stress (up to thousands of cases per day). RESULTS: We estimate that under relatively low caseloads in the state of New South Wales (tens of cases per day), TTIQ contributed to a 54% reduction in transmission. Under higher caseloads in the state of Victoria (hundreds of cases per day), TTIQ contributed to a 42% reduction in transmission. Our results also suggest that case-initiated contact tracing can support timely quarantine in times of system stress (thousands of cases per day). CONCLUSION: Contact tracing systems for COVID-19 in Australia were highly effective and adaptable in supporting the national suppression strategy from 2020-21, prior to the emergence of the Omicron variant in November 2021. TTIQ systems were critical to the maintenance of the strong suppression strategy and were more effective when caseloads were (relatively) low.

Safety and efficacy of whole-body chlorhexidine gluconate cleansing with or without emollient in hospitalised neonates (NeoCHG): a multicentre, randomised, open-label, factorial pilot trial.

Background: Healthcare-associated infections account for substantial neonatal in-hospital mortality. Chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) whole body skin application could reduce sepsis by lowering bacterial colonisation density, although safety and optimal application regimen is unclear. Emollients, including sunflower oil, may independently improve skin condition, thereby reducing sepsis. We aimed to inform which concentration and frequency of CHG, with or without emollient, would best balance safety and the surrogate marker of efficacy of reduction in bacterial colonisation, to be taken forward in a future pragmatic trial evaluating clinical outcomes of sepsis and mortality. Methods: In this multicentre, randomised, open-label, factorial pilot trial, neonates in two hospital sites (South Africa, Bangladesh) aged 1-6 days with gestational age ≥ 28 weeks and birthweight 1000-1999 g were randomly assigned in a factorial design stratified by site to three different concentrations of CHG (0.5%, 1%, and 2%), with or without emollient (sunflower oil) applied on working days vs alternate working days. A control arm received neither product. Caregivers were unblinded although laboratory staff were blinded to randomisation Co-primary outcomes were safety (change in neonatal skin condition score incorporating dryness, erythema, and skin breakdown) and efficacy in reducing bacterial colonisation density (change in total skin bacterial log10 CFU from randomisation to day-3 and day-8). The trial is registered at the ISRCTN registry, ISRCTN 69836999. Findings: Between Apr 12 2021 and Jan 18 2022, 208 infants were randomised and 198 were included in the final analysis. Skin condition scores were low with mean 0.1 (sd = 0.3; N = 208) at baseline, 0.1 (sd = 0.3; N = 199) at day 3 and 0.1 (sd = 0.3; N = 189) at day 8, with no evidence of differences between concentration (1% CHG vs 0.5% estimate = -0.3, 95% CI = (-1.2, 0.6), p = 0.55. 2% CHG vs 0.5% CHG estimate = 0.5 (-0.4, 1.4), p = 0.30), increasing frequency (estimate = -0.4; 95% CI = (-1.1, 0.4), p = 0.33), emollient (estimate = -0.5, (-1.2, 0.3), p = 0.23) or with control (estimate = -0.9, (-2.3, 0.4), p = 0.18). Mean log10 CFU was 4.9 (sd = 3.0; N = 208) at baseline, 6.3 (sd = 3.1; N = 198) at day 3 and 8.4 (sd = 2.6; N = 183) with no evidence of differences between concentration (1% CHG vs 0.5% estimate = -0.4; 95% CI = (-1.1, 0.23); p = 0.23. 2% CHG vs 0.5% CHG estimate = 0.0 (-0.6, 0.6), p = 0.96), with increasing frequency (estimate = -0.4; 95% CI = (-0.9, 0.2); p = 0.17), with emollient (estimate = 0.4, 95% CI = (-0.2, 0.9); p = 0.18) or with control (estimate = -0.2, 95% CI = (-1.3, 0.9); p = 0.73). By day-8, overall 158/183 (86%) of neonates were colonised with Enterobacterales, and 72/183 (39%) and 69/183 (9%) with Klebsiella spp resistant to third-generation cephalosporin and carbapenems, respectively. There were no CHG-related SAEs, emollient-related SAEs, grade 3 or 4 skin scores or grade 3 or 4 hypothermias. Interpretation: In this pilot trial of CHG with or without sunflower oil, no safety issues were identified, and further trials examining clinical outcomes are warranted. The relatively late start application of emollient, at a mean of 3.8 days of life, may have reduced the impact of the intervention although no subgroup effects were detected. There was no clear evidence in favour of a specific concentration of chlorhexidine, and there was rapid colonisation with Enterobacterales with frequent antimicrobial resistance, regardless of skin application regimen. Funding: The MRC Joint Applied Global Health award, the Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership (GARDP), MRC Clinical Trials Unit core funding (UKRI) and St. George's, University of London.

Assessment of three antibiotic combination regimens against Gram-negative bacteria causing neonatal sepsis in low- and middle-income countries.

Gram-negative bacteria (GNB) are a major cause of neonatal sepsis in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Although the World Health Organization (WHO) reports that over 80% of these sepsis deaths could be prevented through improved treatment, the efficacy of the currently recommended first- and second-line treatment regimens for this condition is increasingly affected by high rates of drug resistance. Here we assess three well known antibiotics, fosfomycin, flomoxef and amikacin, in combination as potential antibiotic treatment regimens by investigating the drug resistance and genetic profiles of commonly isolated GNB causing neonatal sepsis in LMICs. The five most prevalent bacterial isolates in the NeoOBS study (NCT03721302) are Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, E. coli, Serratia marcescens and Enterobacter cloacae complex. Among these isolates, high levels of ESBL and carbapenemase encoding genes are detected along with resistance to ampicillin, gentamicin and cefotaxime, the current WHO recommended empiric regimens. The three new combinations show excellent in vitro activity against ESBL-producing K. pneumoniae and E. coli isolates. Our data should further inform and support the clinical evaluation of these three antibiotic combinations for the treatment of neonatal sepsis in areas with high rates of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria.

Emergent Omicron BR.2.1 sublineage of SARS-CoV-2 in New South Wales, Australia: a subvariant with high fitness but without increased disease severity.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the epidemiology and impact of Omicron BR.2.1, an emergent SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.2.75 sublineage displaying high fitness compared to other cocirculating subvariants in New South Wales, Australia. METHODS: From September 01 to November 26, 2022, 4971 SARS-CoV-2 consensus genomes from unique patients were generated, and correlated with international travel and reinfection history, and admission to the intensive care unit. RESULTS: BR.2.1 became the predominant variant by late November, and was responsible for a significantly higher proportion of community-acquired cases during the study period (55.1% vs 38.4%, P < 0.001). Reinfections (defined as occurring between 6 and 24 weeks after a prior diagnosis of COVID-19) were significantly higher among BR.2.1 compared to non-BR.2.1 infected persons (17.0% vs 6.0%, P < 0.001). BR.2.1 cases were also significantly younger compared to non-BR.2.1 (median age 48 years (interquartile range [IQR] 32) vs 53 years (IQR 32), P = 0.004). The proportion of patients admitted to the intensive care unit with BR.2.1 was not significantly higher than other subvariants (2.3% vs 2.0%, P = 0.717). CONCLUSION: Having emerged locally within New South Wales, BR.2.1 caused a significant number of SARS-CoV-2 reinfections, but with disease severity comparable with other currently circulating lineages. Given its rapid rise in prevalence, BR.2.1 has the potential to become established internationally.

Practices and challenges related to antibiotic use in paediatric treatment in hospitals and health centres in Niger and Uganda: a mixed methods study.

BACKGROUND: Antibiotic resistance is a significant public health problem and is responsible for high mortality in children and new-borns. Strengthening the rational use of antibiotics and improving the quality and access to existing antibiotics are important factors in the fight against antibiotic resistance. This study aims to provide knowledge on the use of antibiotics in children in resource-limited countries in order to identify problems and possible avenues for improvement of antibiotics use. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study in July 2020 and collected quantitative clinical and therapeutic data on antibiotic prescriptions between January and December 2019 in 4 hospitals or health centres in both Uganda and Niger, respectively from January to December 2019. Semi-structured interviews and focus groups were conducted among healthcare personnel and carers for children under 17 years of age, respectively. RESULTS: A total of 1,622 children in Uganda and 660 children in Niger (mean age of 3.9 years (SD 4.43)) who received at least one antibiotic were included in the study. In hospital settings, 98.4 to 100% of children prescribed at least one antibiotic received at least one injectable antibiotic. Most hospitalized children received more than one antibiotic in both Uganda (52.1%) and Niger (71.1%). According to the WHO-AWaRe index, the proportion of prescriptions of antibiotics belonging to the Watch category was 21.8% (432/1982) in Uganda and 32.0% (371/1158) in Niger. No antibiotics from the Reserve category were prescribed. Health care provider's prescribing practices are rarely guided by microbiological analyses. Prescribers are faced with numerous constraints, such as lack of standard national guidelines, unavailability of essential antibiotics at the level of hospital pharmacies, the limited financial means of the families, and pressure to prescribe antibiotics from caregivers as well as from drug company representatives. The quality of some antibiotics provided by the National Medical Stores to the public and private hospitals has been questioned by some health professionals. Self-medication is a widespread practice for the antibiotic treatment of children for economic and access reasons. CONCLUSION: The study findings indicate that an intersection of policy, institutional norms and practices including individual caregiver or health provider factors, influence antibiotic prescription, administration and dispensing practices.

Challenges in the Implementation of the NeoOBS Study, a Global Pragmatic Observational Cohort Study, to Investigate the Aetiology and Management of Neonatal Sepsis in the Hospital Setting.

Neonatal sepsis is a significant cause of mortality and morbidity in low- and middle-income countries. To deliver high-quality data studies and inform future trials, it is crucial to understand the challenges encountered when managing global multi-centre research studies and to identify solutions that can feasibly be implemented in these settings. This paper provides an overview of the complexities faced by diverse research teams in different countries and regions, together with actions implemented to achieve pragmatic study management of a large multi-centre observational study of neonatal sepsis. We discuss specific considerations for enrolling sites with different approval processes and varied research experience, structures, and training. Implementing a flexible recruitment strategy and providing ongoing training were necessary to overcome these challenges. We emphasize the attention that must be given to designing the database and monitoring plans. Extensive data collection tools, complex databases, tight timelines, and stringent monitoring arrangements can be problematic and might put the study at risk. Finally, we discuss the complexities added when collecting and shipping isolates and the importance of having a robust central management team and interdisciplinary collaborators able to adapt easily and make swift decisions to deliver the study on time and to target. With pragmatic approaches, appropriate training, and good communication, these challenges can be overcome to deliver high-quality data from a complex study in challenging settings through a collaborative research network.

Comparison of short-course multidrug treatment with standard therapy for visceral leishmaniasis in India: an open-label, non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Improved treatment approaches are needed for visceral leishmaniasis. We assessed the efficacy and safety of three potential short-course combination treatments compared with the standard monotherapy in India. METHODS: Standard treatment (1 mg/kg amphotericin B infusion on alternate days for 30 days, total dose 15 mg/kg) was compared with three drug combinations (single injection of 5 mg/kg liposomal amphotericin B and 7-day 50 mg oral miltefosine or single 10-day 11 mg/kg intramuscular paromomycin; or 10 days each of miltefosine and paromomycin) in an open-label, parallel-group, non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial in two hospital sites in Bihar, India. Patients aged 5-60 years with parasitologically confirmed visceral leishmaniasis were randomly assigned one of the four treatments by the trial statistician by use of a computer-generated list. Clinical assessments were done at the end of treatment (15 days on combination treatment; 31 days for standard treatment) and after 45 days and 6 months. The primary endpoint was definitive cure (defined as no sign or symptom of visceral leishmaniasis and parasitologically cured to the last follow-up). Analyses were done both by intention to treat and per protocol. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00696969. FINDINGS: Between June, 2008, and July, 2009, 634 patients were assigned amphotericin B (n=157), liposomal amphotericin B with miltefosine (n=160) or paromomycin (n=158), or miltefosine and paromomycin (n=159). 618 patients were in the per-protocol population. There were two relapses in each group. The numbers with definitive cure at 6 months for the intention-to-treat population were 146 (cure rate 93·0%; CI 87·5-96·3) for amphotericin B, 156 (97·5%; 93·3-99·2) for liposomal amphotericin B and miltefosine, 154 (97·5%; 93·24-99·2) for liposomal amphotericin B and paromomycin, and 157 (98·7%; 95·1-99·8) for miltefosine and paromomycin. All combinations were non-inferior to the standard treatment, in both the intention-to-treat and per-protocol populations. Patients in the combination groups had fewer adverse events than did those assigned standard treatment. INTERPRETATION: Combination treatments for visceral leishmaniasis are efficacious and safe, and decrease the duration of therapy, thereby encouraging adherence and reducing emergence of drug-resistant parasites. FUNDING: Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative and the Indian Council of Medical Research.

Opposing roles for CXCR3 signaling in central nervous system versus ocular inflammation mediated by the astrocyte-targeted production of IL-12.

CXCR3 and its ligands are important for the trafficking of activated CD4(+) T(H)1 T cells, CD8(+) T cells, and natural killer cells during inflammation. Recent functional studies demonstrate a more diverse role of CXCR3 in inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). We examined the impact of CXCR3 on a less complex interferon-γ-dependent, type 1 cell-mediated immune response in the CNS, induced in mice by the transgenic production of glial fibrillary acidic protein IL-12 (GF-IL12) by astrocytes and retinal Müller cells. GF-IL12 mice develop ataxia because of severe cerebellar inflammation but have little overt ocular disease. Surprisingly, CXCR3-deficient GF-IL12 mice (GF-IL12/CXCR3KO) have drastically reduced ataxia but developed cataracts, severe ocular inflammation, and eye atrophy. Most GF-IL12/CXCR3KO mice had minimal cerebellar inflammation but severe retinal disorganization, loss of photoreceptors, and lens destruction in the eye. The number of CD3(+), CD11b(+), and natural killer 1.1(+) cells were reduced in the CNS but highly increased in the eyes of GF-IL12/CXCR3KO compared with GF-IL12 mice. High levels of interferon-γ, IL-1, tumor necrosis factor α, CXCL9, CXCL10, and CCL5 were found in GF-IL12 cerebelli and GF-IL12/CXCR3KO eyes. Our findings demonstrate key but paradoxical functions for CXCR3 in IL-12-induced immune disease in the CNS, promoting inflammation in the brain yet restricting it in the eye. We conclude that the function of CXCR3 in cellular immune disease is driven by a common trigger and is controlled by tissue-specific factors.