Molecular landscape of BoNT/B bound to a membrane-inserted synaptotagmin/ganglioside complex.

Botulinum neurotoxin serotype B (BoNT/B) uses two separate protein and polysialoglycolipid-binding pockets to interact with synaptotagmin 1/2 and gangliosides. However, an integrated model of BoNT/B bound to its neuronal receptors in a native membrane topology is still lacking. Using a panel of in silico and experimental approaches, we present here a new model for BoNT/B binding to neuronal membranes, in which the toxin binds to a preassembled synaptotagmin-ganglioside GT1b complex and a free ganglioside allowing a lipid-binding loop of BoNT/B to interact with the glycone part of the synaptotagmin-associated GT1b. Furthermore, our data provide molecular support for the decrease in BoNT/B sensitivity in Felidae that harbor the natural variant synaptotagmin2-N59Q. These results reveal multiple interactions of BoNT/B with gangliosides and support a novel paradigm in which a toxin recognizes a protein/ganglioside complex.

Membrane cholesterol depletion as a trigger of Nav1.9 channel-mediated inflammatory pain.

Cholesterol is a major lipid component of the mammalian plasma membrane. While much is known about its metabolism, its transport, and its role in atherosclerotic vascular disease, less is known about its role in neuronal pathophysiology. This study reveals an unexpected function of cholesterol in controlling pain transmission. We show that inflammation lowers cholesterol content in skin tissue and sensory DRG culture. Pharmacological depletion of cellular cholesterol entails sensitization of nociceptive neurons and promotes mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia through the activation of voltage-gated Nav1.9 channels. Inflammatory mediators enhance the production of reactive oxygen species and induce partitioning of Nav1.9 channels from cholesterol-rich lipid rafts to cholesterol-poor non-raft regions of the membrane. Low-cholesterol environment enhances voltage-dependent activation of Nav1.9 channels leading to enhanced neuronal excitability, whereas cholesterol replenishment reversed these effects. Consistently, we show that transcutaneous delivery of cholesterol alleviates hypersensitivity in animal models of acute and chronic inflammatory pain. In conclusion, our data establish that membrane cholesterol is a modulator of pain transmission and shed a new light on the relationship between cholesterol homeostasis, inflammation, and pain.

Gangliosides interact with synaptotagmin to form the high-affinity receptor complex for botulinum neurotoxin B.

Botulinum neurotoxin type B (BoNT/B) recognizes nerve terminals by binding to 2 receptor components: a polysialoganglioside, predominantly GT1b, and synaptotagmin 1/2. It is widely thought that BoNT/B initially binds to GT1b then diffuses in the plane of the membrane to interact with synaptotagmin. We have addressed the hypothesis that a GT1b-synaptotagmin cis complex forms the BoNT/B receptor. We identified a consensus glycosphingolipid-binding motif in the extracellular juxtamembrane domain of synaptotagmins 1/2 and confirmed by Langmuir monolayer, surface plasmon resonance, and circular dichroism that GT1b interacts with synaptotagmin peptides containing this sequence, inducing α-helical structure. Molecular modeling and tryptophan fluorescence spectroscopy were consistent with the intertwining of GT1b and synaptotagmin, involving cis interactions between the oligosaccharide and ceramide moieties of GT1b and the juxtamembrane and transmembrane domains of synaptotagmin, respectively. Furthermore, a point mutation on synaptotagmin, located outside of the BoNT/B-binding segment, inhibited GT1b binding and blocked GT1b-induced potentiation of BoNT/B binding to synaptotagmin-expressing cells. Our findings are consistent with a model in which a preassembled GT1b-synaptotagmin complex constitutes the high-affinity BoNT/B receptor.

Optimization and in Vivo Validation of Peptide Vectors Targeting the LDL Receptor.

Active targeting and delivery to pathophysiological organs of interest is of paramount importance to increase specific accumulation of therapeutic drugs or imaging agents while avoiding systemic side effects. We recently developed a family of new peptide ligands of the human and rodent LDL receptor (LDLR), an attractive cell-surface receptor with high uptake activity and local enrichment in several normal or pathological tissues (Malcor et al., J. Med. Chem. 2012, 55 (5), 2227). Initial chemical optimization of the 15-mer, all natural amino acid compound 1/VH411 (DSGL[CMPRLRGC]cDPR) and structure-activity relationship (SAR) investigation led to the cyclic 8 amino acid analogue compound 22/VH445 ([cMPRLRGC]c) which specifically binds hLDLR with a KD of 76 nM and has an in vitro blood half-life of ∼3 h. Further introduction of non-natural amino acids led to the identification of compound 60/VH4106 ([(d)-"Pen"M"Thz"RLRGC]c), which showed the highest KD value of 9 nM. However, this latter analogue displayed the lowest in vitro blood half-life (∼1.9 h). In the present study, we designed a new set of peptide analogues, namely, VH4127 to VH4131, with further improved biological properties. Detailed analysis of the hLDLR-binding kinetics of previous and new analogues showed that the latter all displayed very high on-rates, in the 106 s-1.M-1 range, and off-rates varying from the low 10-2 s-1 to the 10-1 s-1 range. Furthermore, all these new analogues showed increased blood half-lives in vitro, reaching ∼7 and 10 h for VH4129 and VH4131, respectively. Interestingly, we demonstrate in cell-based assays using both VH445 and the most balanced optimized analogue VH4127 ([cM"Thz"RLRG"Pen"]c), showing a KD of 18 nM and a blood half-life of ∼4.3 h, that its higher on-rate correlated with a significant increase in both the extent of cell-surface binding to hLDLR and the endocytosis potential. Finally, intravenous injection of tritium-radiolabeled 3H-VH4127 in wild-type or ldlr -/- mice confirmed their active LDLR targeting in vivo. Overall, this study extends our previous work toward a diversified portfolio of LDLR-targeted peptide vectors with validated LDLR-targeting potential in vivo.

CK2-regulated schwannomin-interacting protein IQCJ-SCHIP-1 association with AnkG contributes to the maintenance of the axon initial segment.

The axon initial segment (AIS) plays a central role in electrogenesis and in the maintenance of neuronal polarity. Its molecular organization is dependent on the scaffolding protein ankyrin (Ank) G and is regulated by kinases. For example, the phosphorylation of voltage-gated sodium channels by the protein kinase CK2 regulates their interaction with AnkG and, consequently, their accumulation at the AIS. We previously showed that IQ motif containing J-Schwannomin-Interacting Protein 1 (IQCJ-SCHIP-1), an isoform of the SCHIP-1, accumulated at the AIS in vivo. Here, we analyzed the molecular mechanisms involved in IQCJ-SCHIP-1-specific axonal location. We showed that IQCJ-SCHIP-1 accumulation in the AIS of cultured hippocampal neurons depended on AnkG expression. Pull-down assays and surface plasmon resonance analysis demonstrated that AnkG binds to CK2-phosphorylated IQCJ-SCHIP-1 but not to the non-phosphorylated protein. Surface plasmon resonance approaches using IQCJ-SCHIP-1, SCHIP-1a, another SCHIP-1 isoform, and their C-terminus tail mutants revealed that a segment including multiple CK2-phosphorylatable sites was directly involved in the interaction with AnkG. Pharmacological inhibition of CK2 diminished both IQCJ-SCHIP-1 and AnkG accumulation in the AIS. Silencing SCHIP-1 expression reduced AnkG cluster at the AIS. Finally, over-expression of IQCJ-SCHIP-1 decreased AnkG concentration at the AIS, whereas a mutant deleted of the CK2-regulated AnkG interaction site did not. Our study reveals that CK2-regulated IQJC-SCHIP-1 association with AnkG contributes to AIS maintenance. The axon initial segment (AIS) organization depends on ankyrin (Ank) G and kinases. Here we showed that AnkG binds to CK2-phosphorylated IQCJ-SCHIP-1, in a segment including 12 CK2-phosphorylatable sites. In cultured neurons, either pharmacological inhibition of CK2 or IQCJ-SCHIP-1 silencing reduced AnkG clustering. Overexpressed IQCJ-SCHIP-1 decreased AnkG concentration at the AIS whereas a mutant deleted of the CK2-regulated AnkG interaction site did not. Thus, CK2-regulated IQJC-SCHIP-1 association with AnkG contributes to AIS maintenance.

A chip-based assay for botulinum neurotoxin A activity in pharmaceutical preparations.

The production of botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT/A) for therapeutic and cosmetic applications requires precise determination of batch potency, and the enzymatic activity of BoNT/A light chain is a crucial index that can be measured in vitro. We previously established a SNAP-25 chip-based assay using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) that is more sensitive than the standard mouse bioassay for the quantification of BoNT/A activity. We have now adapted this procedure for pharmaceutical preparations. The optimized SPR assay allowed multiple measurements on a single chip, including the kinetics of substrate cleavage. The activity of five different batches of a pharmaceutical BoNT/A preparation was determined in a blind study by SPR and found to be in agreement with data from the in vivo mouse lethality assay. Biosensor detection of specific proteolytic products has the potential to accurately monitor the activity of pharmaceutical BoNT/A preparations, and a single chip can be used to assay more than 100 samples.

Tetrodotoxin-resistant voltage-gated sodium channel Nav 1.8 constitutively interacts with ankyrin G.

The tetrodotoxin-resistant (TTX-R) voltage-gated sodium channel Nav 1.8 is predominantly expressed in peripheral afferent neurons, but in case of neuronal injury an ectopic and detrimental expression of Nav 1.8 occurs in neurons of the CNS. In CNS neurons, Nav 1.2 and Nav 1.6 channels accumulate at the axon initial segment, the site of the generation of the action potential, through a direct interaction with the scaffolding protein ankyrin G (ankG). This interaction is regulated by protein kinase CK2 phosphorylation. In this study, we quantitatively analyzed the interaction between Nav 1.8 and ankG. GST pull-down assay and surface plasmon resonance technology revealed that Nav 1.8 strongly and constitutively interacts with ankG, in comparison to what observed for Nav 1.2. An ion channel bearing the ankyrin-binding motif of Nav 1.8 displaced the endogenous Nav 1 accumulation at the axon initial segment of hippocampal neurons. Finally, Nav 1.8 and ankG co-localized in skin nerves fibers. Altogether, these results indicate that Nav 1.8 carries all the information required for its localization at ankG micro-domains. The constitutive binding of Nav 1.8 with ankG could contribute to the pathological aspects of illnesses where Nav 1.8 is ectopically expressed in CNS neurons.

Structural insights into the exquisite selectivity of neurexin/neuroligin synaptic interactions.

The extracellular domains of neuroligins and neurexins interact through Ca(2+) to form flexible trans-synaptic associations characterized by selectivity for neuroligin or neurexin subtypes. This heterophilic interaction, essential for synaptic maturation and differentiation, is regulated by gene selection, alternative mRNA splicing and post-translational modifications. A new, 2.6 A-resolution crystal structure of a soluble neurexin-1beta-neuroligin-4 (Nrx1beta-NL4) complex permits a detailed description of the Ca(2+)-coordinated interface and unveils concerted positional rearrangements of several residues of NL4, not observed in neuroligin-1, associated with Nrx1beta binding. Surface plasmon resonance analysis of the binding of structure-guided Nrx1beta mutants towards NL4 and neuroligin-1 shows that flexibility of the Nrx1beta-binding site in NL4 is reflected in a greater dissociation constant of the complex and higher sensitivity to ionic strength and pH variations. Analysis of neuroligin mutants points to critical functions for two respective residues in neuroligin-1 and neuroligin-2 in governing the affinity of the complexes. Although neuroligin-1 and neuroligin-2 have pre-determined conformations that respectively promote and prevent Nrx1beta association, unique conformational reshaping of the NL4 surface is required to permit Nrx1beta association.

LDLR-Mediated Targeting and Productive Uptake of siRNA-Peptide Ligand Conjugates In Vitro and In Vivo.

Small RNA molecules such as microRNA and small interfering RNA (siRNA) have become promising therapeutic agents because of their specificity and their potential to modulate gene expression. Any gene of interest can be potentially up- or down-regulated, making RNA-based technology the healthcare breakthrough of our era. However, the functional and specific delivery of siRNAs into tissues of interest and into the cytosol of target cells remains highly challenging, mainly due to the lack of efficient and selective delivery systems. Among the variety of carriers for siRNA delivery, peptides have become essential candidates because of their high selectivity, stability, and conjugation versatility. Here, we describe the development of molecules encompassing siRNAs against SOD1, conjugated to peptides that target the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), and their biological evaluation both in vitro and in vivo.

Preparation and In Vitro Validation of a Cucurbit[7]uril-Peptide Conjugate Targeting the LDL Receptor.

Here we report the coupling of a cyclic peptide (VH4127) targeting the low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor (LDLR) noncompetitively to cucurbit[7]uril (CB[7]) to develop a new kind of drug delivery system (DDS), namely, CB[7]-VH4127, with maintained binding affinity to the LDLR. To evaluate the uptake potential of this bismacrocyclic compound, another conjugate was prepared comprising a high-affinity group for CB[7] (adamantyl(Ada)-amine) coupled to the fluorescent tracker Alexa680 (A680). The resulting A680-Ada·CB[7]-VH4127 supramolecular complex demonstrated conserved LDLR-binding potential and improved LDLR-mediated endocytosis and intracellular accumulation potential in LDLR-expressing cells. The combination of two technologies, namely, monofunctionalized CB[7] and the VH4127 LDLR-targeting peptide, opens new avenues in terms of targeting and intracellular delivery to LDLR-expressing tissues or tumors. The versatile transport capacity of CB[7], known to bind a large spectrum of bioactive or functional compounds, makes this new DDS suitable for a wide range of therapeutic or imaging applications.

Binding of two zinc ions promotes liquid-liquid phase separation of Tau.

Tau is a naturally disordered microtubule associated protein which forms intraneuronal aggregates in several neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). It was reported that zinc interaction with tau protein can trigger its aggregation. Recently we identified three zinc binding sites located in the N-terminal part, repeat region and the C-terminal part of tau. Here we characterized zinc binding to each of the three sites using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and determined the impact of each site on aggregation using dynamic light scattering (DLS) assays. First, we confirmed the presence of three zinc binding sites on tau and determined the thermodynamic parameters of binding of zinc to these sites. We found a high-affinity zinc binding site located in the repeat region of tau and two N- and C-terminus binding sites with a lower binding constant for zinc. Second, we showed that tau aggregation necessitates zinc binding to the high affinity site in the R2R3 region, while LLPS necessitates zinc binding to any two binding sites. With regard to the role of zinc ions in the aggregation of proteins in neurodegenerative diseases, these findings bring new insights to the understanding of the aggregation mechanism of tau protein induced by zinc.

A label-free biosensor assay for botulinum neurotoxin B in food and human serum.

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are among the most toxic substances known. Surveillance and diagnostics require methods for rapid detection of BoNTs in complex media such as foodstuffs and human serum. We have developed in vitro assays to specifically detect the protease activity of botulinum neurotoxin B (BoNT/B) on a time scale of minutes. Cleavage of the BoNT/B substrate VAMP2, a membrane SNARE protein associated with synaptic vesicles, was monitored using real-time surface plasmon resonance to measure vesicle capture by specific antibodies coupled to microchips. The assay is functional in low-ionic-strength buffers and stable over a wide range of pH values (5.5-9.0). Endoproteolytic cleavage of VAMP2 was detected in 10 min with 2 pM native BoNT/B holotoxin. Contamination of liquid food products such as carrot juice, apple juice, and milk with low picomolar amounts of BoNT/B was revealed within 3h. BoNT/B activity was detected in sera from patients with type B botulism but not in healthy controls or patients with other neurological diseases. This robust, sensitive, and rapid protein chip assay is appropriate for monitoring BoNT/B in food products and diagnostic tests for type B botulism and could replace the current in vivo mouse bioassay.

Epileptic and developmental disorders of the speech cortex: ligand/receptor interaction of wild-type and mutant SRPX2 with the plasminogen activator receptor uPAR.

Mutations in SRPX2 (Sushi-Repeat Protein, X-linked 2) cause rolandic epilepsy with speech impairment (RESDX syndrome) or with altered development of the speech cortex (bilateral perisylvian polymicrogyria). The physiological roles of SRPX2 remain unknown to date. One way to infer the function of SRPX2 relies on the identification of the as yet unknown SRPX2 protein partners. Using a combination of interactome approaches including yeast two-hybrid screening, co-immunoprecipitation experiments, cell surface binding and surface plasmon resonance (SPR), we show that SRPX2 is a ligand for uPAR, the urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) receptor. Previous studies have shown that uPAR(-/-) knock-out mice exhibited enhanced susceptibility to epileptic seizures and had brain cortical anomalies consistent with altered neuronal migration and maturation, all features that are reminiscent to the phenotypes caused by SRPX2 mutations. SPR analysis indicated that the p.Y72S mutation associated with rolandic epilepsy and perisylvian polymicrogyria, led to a 5.8-fold gain-of-affinity of SRPX2 with uPAR. uPAR is a crucial component of the extracellular plasminogen proteolysis system; two more SRPX2 partners identified here, the cysteine protease cathepsin B (CTSB) and the metalloproteinase ADAMTS4, are also components of the extracellular proteolysis machinery and CTSB is a well-known activator of uPA. The identification of functionally related SRPX2 partners provides the first and exciting insights into the possible role of SRPX2 in the brain, and suggests that a network of SRPX2-interacting proteins classically involved in the proteolytic remodeling of the extracellular matrix and including uPAR participates in the functioning, in the development and in disorders of the speech cortex.

Daily changes in synaptic innervation of VIP neurons in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus: contribution of glutamatergic afferents.

The daily temporal organization of rhythmic functions in mammals, which requires synchronization of the circadian clock to the 24-h light-dark cycle, is believed to involve adjustments of the mutual phasing of the cellular oscillators that comprise the time-keeper within the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus (SCN). Following from a previous study showing that the SCN undergoes day/night rearrangements of its neuronal-glial network that may be crucial for intercellular phasing, we investigated the contribution of glutamatergic synapses, known to play major roles in SCN functioning, to such rhythmic plastic events. Neither expression levels of the vesicular glutamate transporters nor numbers of glutamatergic terminals showed nycthemeral variations in the SCN. However, using quantitative imaging after combined immunolabelling, the density of synapses on neurons expressing vasoactive intestinal peptide, known as targets of the retinal input, increased during the day and both glutamatergic and non-glutamatergic synapses contributed to the increase (+36%). This was not the case for synapses made on vasopressin-containing neurons, the other major source of SCN efferents in the non-retinorecipient region. Together with electron microscope observations showing no differences in the morphometric features of glutamatergic terminals during the day and night, these data show that the light synchronization process in the SCN involves a selective remodelling of synapses at sites of photic integration. They provide a further illustration of how the adult brain may rapidly and reversibly adapt its synaptic architecture to functional needs.

A protein chip membrane-capture assay for botulinum neurotoxin activity.

Botulinum neurotoxins A and B (BoNT/A and B) are neuromuscular blocking agents which inhibit neurotransmission by cleaving the intra-cellular presynaptic SNARE proteins SNAP-25 and VAMP2, localized respectively in plasma membrane and synaptic vesicles. These neurotoxins are both dangerous pathogens and powerful therapeutic agents with numerous clinical and cosmetic applications. Consequently there is a need for in vitro assays of their biological activity to screen for potential inhibitors and to replace the widely used in vivo mouse assay. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) was used to measure membrane vesicle capture by antibodies against SNAP-25 and VAMP2. Substrate cleavage by BoNTs modified capture providing a method to assay toxin activity. Firstly using synaptic vesicles as a substrate, a comparison of the EC(50)s for BoNT/B obtained by SPR, ELISA or flow cytometry indicated similar sensitivity although SPR assays were more rapid. Sonication of brain or neuronal cultures generated plasma membrane fragments with accessible intra-cellular epitopes adapted to measurement of BoNT/A activity. SPR responses were proportional to antigen concentration permitting detection of as little as 4 pM SNAP-25 in crude lysates. BoNT/A activity was assayed using monoclonal antibodies that specifically recognize a SNAP-25 epitope generated by the proteolytic action of the toxin. Incubation of intact primary cultured neurons with BoNT/A yielded an EC(50) of 0.5 pM. The SPR biosensor method was sensitive enough to monitor BoNT/A and B activity in cells cultured in a 96-well format providing an alternative to experimental animals for toxicological assays.

Mammalian peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase mRNA expression can be modulated by the La autoantigen.

Peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM; EC 1.14.17.3) catalyzes the COOH-terminal alpha-amidation of peptidylglycine substrates, yielding amidated products. We have previously reported a putative regulatory RNA binding protein (PAM mRNA-BP) that binds specifically to the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of PAM-mRNA. Here, the PAM mRNA-BP was isolated and revealed to be La protein using affinity purification onto a 3' UTR PAM RNA, followed by tandem mass spectrometry identification. We determined that the core binding sequence is approximately 15-nucleotides (nt) long and is located 471 nt downstream of the stop codon. Moreover, we identified the La autoantigen as a protein that specifically binds the 3' UTR of PAM mRNA in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, La protein overexpression caused a nuclear retention of PAM mRNAs and resulted in the down-regulation of endogenous PAM activity. Most interestingly, the nuclear retention of PAM mRNA is lost upon expressing the La proteins that lack a conserved nuclear retention element, suggesting a direct association between PAM mRNA and La protein in vivo. Reporter assays using a chimeric mRNA that combined luciferase and the 3' UTR of PAM mRNA demonstrated a decrease of the reporter activity due to an increase in the nuclear localization of reporter mRNAs, while the deletion of the 15-nt La binding site led to their clear-cut cytoplasmic relocalization. The results suggest an important role for the La protein in the modulation of PAM expression, possibly by mechanisms that involve a nuclear retention and perhaps a processing of pre-PAM mRNA molecules.

A computational and experimental study to develop E-selectin targeted peptides for molecular imaging applications.

Aim: E-selectin is overexpressed on angiogenic and inflamed endothelium. Molecules binding to E-selectin with high affinity and specificity enable its use as a molecular imaging biomarker. Material & methods: The interactions of four different peptides (i.e., Ac-P1 [Acetyl-IELLQAR-CONH2], H2N-P2 [H2N-DITWDQLWDLMK-CONH2], H2N-P3A5 [H2N-YRNWAGRW-CONH2], and Ac-P4 [Acetyl-YRNWDGRW-CONH2]) with E-selectin were analyzed by computational methodologies, surface plasmon resonance and in vitro using activated human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Poly(butyl cyanoacrylate) microbubbles were functionalized with the best candidates and evaluated as molecular ultrasound probes in cultured cells and explanted carotid arteries. Results: H2N-P3A5 and Ac-P4 peptides bound stronger to E-selectin than Ac-P1 and H2N-P2, but with lower specificity. H2N-P2 bound with higher specificity and affinity than Ac-P1. Conclusion: H2N-P2 is a good candidate for designing E-selectin-targeted molecular imaging agents.

Identification and characterization of highly versatile peptide-vectors that bind non-competitively to the low-density lipoprotein receptor for in vivo targeting and delivery of small molecules and protein cargos.

Insufficient membrane penetration of drugs, in particular biotherapeutics and/or low target specificity remain a major drawback in their efficacy. We propose here the rational characterization and optimization of peptides to be developed as vectors that target cells expressing specific receptors involved in endocytosis or transcytosis. Among receptors involved in receptor-mediated transport is the LDL receptor. Screening complex phage-displayed peptide libraries on the human LDLR (hLDLR) stably expressed in cell lines led to the characterization of a family of cyclic and linear peptides that specifically bind the hLDLR. The VH411 lead cyclic peptide allowed endocytosis of payloads such as the S-Tag peptide or antibodies into cells expressing the hLDLR. Size reduction and chemical optimization of this lead peptide-vector led to improved receptor affinity. The optimized peptide-vectors were successfully conjugated to cargos of different nature and size including small organic molecules, siRNAs, peptides or a protein moiety such as an Fc fragment. We show that in all cases, the peptide-vectors retain their binding affinity to the hLDLR and potential for endocytosis. Following i.v. administration in wild type or ldlr-/- mice, an Fc fragment chemically conjugated or fused in C-terminal to peptide-vectors showed significant biodistribution in LDLR-enriched organs. We have thus developed highly versatile peptide-vectors endowed with good affinity for the LDLR as a target receptor. These peptide-vectors have the potential to be further developed for efficient transport of therapeutic or imaging agents into cells -including pathological cells-or organs that express the LDLR.

Affinity biosensors using recombinant native membrane proteins displayed on exosomes: application to botulinum neurotoxin B receptor.

The development of simple molecular assays with membrane protein receptors in a native conformation still represents a challenging task. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles which, due to their stability and small size, are suited for analysis in various assay formats. Here, we describe a novel approach to sort recombinant fully native and functional membrane proteins to exosomes using a targeting peptide. Specific binding of high affinity ligands to the potassium channel Kv1.2, the G-protein coupled receptor CXCR4, and the botulinum neurotoxin type B (BoNT/B) receptor, indicated their correct assembly and outside out orientation in exosomes. We then developed, using a label-free optical biosensor, a new method to determine the kinetic constants of BoNT/B holotoxin binding to its receptor synaptotagmin2/GT1b ganglioside (kon = 2.3 ×105 M-1.s-1, koff = 1.3 10-4 s-1), yielding an affinity constant (KD = 0.6 nM) similar to values determined from native tissue. In addition, the recombinant binding domain of BoNT/B, a potential vector for neuronal delivery, bound quasi-irreversibly to synaptotagmin 2/GT1b exosomes. Engineered exosomes provide thus a novel means to study membrane proteins for biotechnology and clinical applications.

Intrinsic dynamics study identifies two amino acids of TIMP-1 critical for its LRP-1-mediated endocytosis in neurons.

The tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) exerts inhibitory activity against matrix metalloproteinases and cytokine-like effects. We previously showed that TIMP-1 reduces neurite outgrowth in mouse cortical neurons and that this cytokine-like effect depends on TIMP-1 endocytosis mediated by the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 (LRP-1). To gain insight into the interaction between TIMP-1 and LRP-1, we considered conformational changes that occur when a ligand binds to its receptor. TIMP-1 conformational changes have been studied using biomolecular simulations, and our results provide evidence for a hinge region that is critical for the protein movement between the N- and C-terminal TIMP-1 domains. In silico mutants have been proposed on residues F12 and K47, which are located in the hinge region. Biological analyses of these mutants show that F12A or K47A mutation does not alter MMP inhibitory activity but impairs the effect of TIMP-1 on neurite outgrowth. Interestingly, these mutants bind to LRP-1 but are not endocytosed. We conclude that the intrinsic dynamics of TIMP-1 are not involved in its binding to LRP-1 but rather in the initiation of endocytosis and associated biological effects.