GS-SMD server for steered molecular dynamics of peptide substrates in the active site of the γ-secretase complex.

Despite recent advances in research, the mechanism of Alzheimer's disease is not fully understood yet. Understanding the process of cleavage and then trimming of peptide substrates, can help selectively block γ-secretase (GS) to stop overproduction of the amyloidogenic products. Our GS-SMD server (https://gs-smd.biomodellab.eu/) allows cleaving and unfolding of all currently known GS substrates (more than 170 peptide substrates). The substrate structure is obtained by threading of the substrate sequence into the known structure of GS complex. The simulations are performed in an implicit water-membrane environment so they are performed rather quickly, 2-6 h per job, depending on the mode of calculations (part of GS complex or the whole structure). It is also possible to introduce mutations to the substrate and GS and pull any part of the substrate in any direction using the steered molecular dynamics (SMD) simulations with constant velocity. The obtained trajectories are visualized and analyzed in the interactive way. One can also compare multiple simulations using the interaction frequency analysis. GS-SMD server can be useful for revealing mechanisms of substrate unfolding and role of mutations in this process.

Conformational Changes and Unfolding of ß-Amyloid Substrates in the Active Site of γ-Secretase.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia and is characterized by a presence of amyloid plaques, composed mostly of the amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides, in the brains of AD patients. The peptides are generated from the amyloid precursor protein (APP), which undergoes a sequence of cleavages, referred as trimming, performed by γ-secretase. Here, we investigated conformational changes in a series of ß-amyloid substrates (from less and more amyloidogenic pathways) in the active site of presenilin-1, the catalytic subunit of γ-secretase. The substrates are trimmed every three residues, finally leading to Aß40 and Aß42, which are the major components of amyloid plaques. To study conformational changes, we employed all-atom molecular dynamics simulations, while for unfolding, we used steered molecular dynamics simulations in an implicit membrane-water environment to accelerate changes. We have found substantial differences in the flexibility of extended C-terminal parts between more and less amyloidogenic pathway substrates. We also propose that the positively charged residues of presenilin-1 may facilitate the stretching and unfolding of substrates. The calculated forces and work/energy of pulling were exceptionally high for Aß40, indicating why trimming of this substrate is so infrequent.

Investigation of Peptides for Molecular Recognition of C-Reactive Protein-Theoretical and Experimental Studies.

We investigate the interactions between C-reactive protein (CRP) and new CRP-binding peptide materials using experimental (biological and physicochemical) methods with the support of theoretical simulations (computational modeling analysis). Three specific CRP-binding peptides (P2, P3, and P9) derived from an M13 bacteriophage have been identified using phage-display technology. The binding efficiency of the peptides exposed on phages toward the CRP protein was demonstrated via biological methods. Fibers of the selected phages/peptides interact differently due to different compositions of amino acid sequences on the exposed peptides, which was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. Numerical and experimental studies consistently showed that the P3 peptide is the best CRP binder. A combination of theoretical and experimental methods demonstrates that identifying the best binder can be performed simply, cheaply, and fast. Such an approach has not been reported previously for peptide screening and demonstrates a new trend in science where calculations can replace or support laborious experimental techniques. Finally, the best CRP binder─the P3 peptide─was used for CRP recognition on silicate-modified indium tin oxide-coated glass electrodes. The obtained electrodes exhibit a wide range of operation (1.0-100 µg mL-1) with a detection limit (LOD = 3σ/S) of 0.34 µg mL-1. Moreover, the dissociation constant Kd of 4.2 ± 0.144 µg mL-1 (35 ± 1.2 nM) was evaluated from the change in the current. The selectivity of the obtained electrode was demonstrated in the presence of three interfering proteins. These results prove that the presented P3 peptide is a potential candidate as a receptor for CRP, which can replace specific antibodies.

Publisher Correction: GPCRmd uncovers the dynamics of the 3D-GPCRome.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

GPCRmd uncovers the dynamics of the 3D-GPCRome.

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are involved in numerous physiological processes and are the most frequent targets of approved drugs. The explosion in the number of new three-dimensional (3D) molecular structures of GPCRs (3D-GPCRome) over the last decade has greatly advanced the mechanistic understanding and drug design opportunities for this protein family. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have become a widely established technique for exploring the conformational landscape of proteins at an atomic level. However, the analysis and visualization of MD simulations require efficient storage resources and specialized software. Here we present GPCRmd (http://gpcrmd.org/), an online platform that incorporates web-based visualization capabilities as well as a comprehensive and user-friendly analysis toolbox that allows scientists from different disciplines to visualize, analyze and share GPCR MD data. GPCRmd originates from a community-driven effort to create an open, interactive and standardized database of GPCR MD simulations.

GPCRsignal: webserver for analysis of the interface between G-protein-coupled receptors and their effector proteins by dynamics and mutations.

GPCRsignal (https://gpcrsignal.biomodellab.eu/) is a webserver devoted to signaling complexes of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The recent improvement in cryo-electron microscopy resulted in the determination of a large number of high-resolution structures of GPCRs bound to their effector proteins: G proteins or arrestins. Analyzing the interfaces between receptor and an effector protein is of high importance since a selection of proper G protein or specific conformation of arrestin leads to changes of signaling that can significantly affect action of drugs. GPCRsignal provides a possibility of running molecular dynamics simulations of all currently available GPCR-effector protein complexes for curated structures: wild-type, with crystal/cryo-EM mutations, or with mutations introduced by the user. The simulations are performed in an implicit water-membrane environment, so they are rather fast. User can run several simulations to obtain statistically valid results. The simulations can be analyzed separately using dynamic FlarePlots for particular types of interactions. One can also compare groups of simulations in Interaction frequency analysis as HeatMaps and also in interaction frequency difference analysis as sticks, linking the interacting residues, of different color and size proportional to differences in contact frequencies.

The EcCLC antiporter embedded in lipidic liquid crystalline films - molecular dynamics simulations and electrochemical methods.

Lipidic-liquid crystalline nanostructures (lipidic cubic phases), which are biomimetic and stable in an excess of water, were used as a convenient environment to investigate the transport properties of the membrane antiporter E. coli CLC-1 (EcCLC). The chloride ion transfer by EcCLC was studied by all-atom molecular dynamics simulations combined with electrochemical methods at pH 7 and pH 5. The cubic phase film was used as the membrane between the chloride donor and receiving compartments and it was placed on the glassy carbon electrode and immersed in the chloride solution. Structural characterization of lipidic mesoscopic systems with and without the incorporation of EcCLC was performed using small-angle X-ray scattering. The EcCLC transported chloride ions more efficiently at more acidic pH, and the resistance of the film decreased at lower pH. 4,4-Diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS) employed as an inhibitor of the protein was shown to decrease the transport efficiency upon hydrolysis to DADS at both pH 7 and pH 5. The molecular dynamics simulations, performed for the first time in lipidic cubic phases for EcCLC, allowed studying the collective movements of chloride ions which can help in elucidating the mechanism of transporting the ions by the EcCLC antiporter. The protein modified lipidic cubic phase film is a convenient and simple system for screening potential inhibitors of integral membrane proteins, as demonstrated by the example of the EcCLC antiporter. The use of lipidic cubic phases may also be important for the further development of new electrochemical sensors for membrane proteins and enzyme electrodes.

Unexpected Reaction Products of Uracil and Its Methyl Derivatives with Acetic Anhydride and Methylene Chloride.

New acetyl derivatives of uracil, 6-methyluracil, and thymine were obtained in the course of an unconventional synthesis in methylene chloride. It was shown that products with the acetyloxymethyl fragment are formed according to a mechanism different from that for products with the acetyloxyethyl group. In particular, for uracil it was proven that the reaction with Ac2O, TEA, and CH2Cl2 leads to 1-acetyloxymethyluracil, where the N1 substituent is composed of the -CH2- fragment that originated from CH2Cl2 and the 1-acetyloxy moiety from Ac2O. The reaction of uracil with Ac2O, TEA, CH2Cl2, and DMAP leads to an acetyloxyethyl derivative in which the -CH2-CH2- fragment originates from TEA and the 1-acetyloxy moiety from Ac2O. A possible mechanism for the formation of new compounds was suggested and supported by the density functional theory/B3LYP quantum mechanical calculations. New compounds (39 in total, including seven deuterated) were fully characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance and high-resolution mass spectrometry techniques.

Discovery of thiazolidin-4-one analogue as selective GSK-3ß inhibitor through structure based virtual screening.

GSK-3ß directly phosphorylate tubulin binding site of tau protein, indicating its importance in tau aggregation and, therefore, in Alzheimer's disease pathology. New GSK-3ß inhibitors were identified using a structure-based screening, ADMET analysis. These studies revealed that ZINC09036109, ZINC72371723, ZINC72371725, and ZINC01373165 approached optimal ADMET properties along with good MM-GBSA dG binding. Protein kinase assays of these compounds against eight disease-relevant kinases were performed. During disease-relevant kinase profiling, ZINC09036109 ((E)-2-((3,4-dimethylphenyl)imino)-5-(3-methoxy-4-(naphthalen-2-ylmethoxy)benzyl)thiazolidin-4-one) emerged as a selective GSK-3ß inhibitor with more than 10-fold selectivity over other disease-relevant kinases. Molecular dynamics study of ZINC09036109 molecule revealed interactions with Ile62, Phe67, Val135, Leu188, Asp200 amino acid residues of the binding site of GSK-3ß, which were highly comparable to the co-crystallized molecule and hence validating comparative better activity of this compound compared to overall screened molecules.

Molecular Modeling of Histamine Receptors-Recent Advances in Drug Discovery.

The recent developments of fast reliable docking, virtual screening and other algorithms gave rise to discovery of many novel ligands of histamine receptors that could be used for treatment of allergic inflammatory disorders, central nervous system pathologies, pain, cancer and obesity. Furthermore, the pharmacological profiles of ligands clearly indicate that these receptors may be considered as targets not only for selective but also for multi-target drugs that could be used for treatment of complex disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, analysis of protein-ligand recognition in the binding site of histamine receptors and also other molecular targets has become a valuable tool in drug design toolkit. This review covers the period 2014-2020 in the field of theoretical investigations of histamine receptors mostly based on molecular modeling as well as the experimental characterization of novel ligands of these receptors.

Allosteric Modulation of the CB1 Cannabinoid Receptor by Cannabidiol-A Molecular Modeling Study of the N-Terminal Domain and the Allosteric-Orthosteric Coupling.

The CB1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1R) contains one of the longest N termini among class A G protein-coupled receptors. Mutagenesis studies suggest that the allosteric binding site of cannabidiol (CBD) involves residues from the N terminal domain. In order to study the allosteric binding of CBD to CB1R we modeled the whole N-terminus of this receptor using the replica exchange molecular dynamics with solute tempering (REST2) approach. Then, the obtained structures of CB1R with the N terminus were used for ligand docking. A natural cannabinoid receptor agonist, Δ9-THC, was docked to the orthosteric site and a negative allosteric modulator, CBD, to the allosteric site positioned between extracellular ends of helices TM1 and TM2. The molecular dynamics simulations were then performed for CB1R with ligands: (i) CBD together with THC, and (ii) THC-only. Analyses of the differences in the residue-residue interaction patterns between those two cases allowed us to elucidate the allosteric network responsible for the modulation of the CB1R by CBD. In addition, we identified the changes in the orthosteric binding mode of Δ9-THC, as well as the changes in its binding energy, caused by the CBD allosteric binding. We have also found that the presence of a complete N-terminal domain is essential for a stable binding of CBD in the allosteric site of CB1R as well as for the allosteric-orthosteric coupling mechanism.

Cryo-EM structure of the native rhodopsin dimer in nanodiscs.

Imaging of rod photoreceptor outer-segment disc membranes by atomic force microscopy and cryo-electron tomography has revealed that the visual pigment rhodopsin, a prototypical class A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), can organize as rows of dimers. GPCR dimerization and oligomerization offer possibilities for allosteric regulation of GPCR activity, but the detailed structures and mechanism remain elusive. In this investigation, we made use of the high rhodopsin density in the native disc membranes and of a bifunctional cross-linker that preserves the native rhodopsin arrangement by covalently tethering rhodopsins via Lys residue side chains. We purified cross-linked rhodopsin dimers and reconstituted them into nanodiscs for cryo-EM analysis. We present cryo-EM structures of the cross-linked rhodopsin dimer as well as a rhodopsin dimer reconstituted into nanodiscs from purified monomers. We demonstrate the presence of a preferential 2-fold symmetrical dimerization interface mediated by transmembrane helix 1 and the cytoplasmic helix 8 of rhodopsin. We confirmed this dimer interface by double electron-electron resonance measurements of spin-labeled rhodopsin. We propose that this interface and the arrangement of two protomers is a prerequisite for the formation of the observed rows of dimers. We anticipate that the approach outlined here could be extended to other GPCRs or membrane receptors to better understand specific receptor dimerization mechanisms.

GPCRM: a homology modeling web service with triple membrane-fitted quality assessment of GPCR models.

Due to the involvement of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in most of the physiological and pathological processes in humans they have been attracting a lot of attention from pharmaceutical industry as well as from scientific community. Therefore, the need for new, high quality structures of GPCRs is enormous. The updated homology modeling service GPCRM (http://gpcrm.biomodellab.eu/) meets those expectations by greatly reducing the execution time of submissions (from days to hours/minutes) with nearly the same average quality of obtained models. Additionally, due to three different scoring functions (Rosetta, Rosetta-MP, BCL::Score) it is possible to select accurate models for the required purposes: the structure of the binding site, the transmembrane domain or the overall shape of the receptor. Currently, no other web service for GPCR modeling provides this possibility. GPCRM is continually upgraded in a semi-automatic way and the number of template structures has increased from 20 in 2013 to over 90 including structures the same receptor with different ligands which can influence the structure not only in the on/off manner. Two types of protein viewers can be used for visual inspection of obtained models. The extended sortable tables with available templates provide links to external databases and display ligand-receptor interactions in visual form.

Photocyclic behavior of rhodopsin induced by an atypical isomerization mechanism.

Vertebrate rhodopsin (Rh) contains 11-cis-retinal as a chromophore to convert light energy into visual signals. On absorption of light, 11-cis-retinal is isomerized to all-trans-retinal, constituting a one-way reaction that activates transducin (Gt) followed by chromophore release. Here we report that bovine Rh, regenerated instead with a six-carbon-ring retinal chromophore featuring a C11=C12 double bond locked in its cis conformation (Rh6mr), employs an atypical isomerization mechanism by converting 11-cis to an 11,13-dicis configuration for prolonged Gt activation. Time-dependent UV-vis spectroscopy, HPLC, and molecular mechanics analyses revealed an atypical thermal reisomerization of the 11,13-dicis to the 11-cis configuration on a slow timescale, which enables Rh6mr to function in a photocyclic manner similar to that of microbial Rhs. With this photocyclic behavior, Rh6mr repeatedly recruits and activates Gt in response to light stimuli, making it an excellent candidate for optogenetic tools based on retinal analog-bound vertebrate Rhs. Overall, these comprehensive structure-function studies unveil a unique photocyclic mechanism of Rh activation by an 11-cis-to-11,13-dicis isomerization.

The Hydrophobic Ligands Entry and Exit from the GPCR Binding Site-SMD and SuMD Simulations.

Most G protein-coupled receptors that bind the hydrophobic ligands (lipid receptors and steroid receptors) belong to the most populated class A (rhodopsin-like) of these receptors. Typical examples of lipid receptors are: rhodopsin, cannabinoid (CB), sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and lysophosphatidic (LPA) receptors. The hydrophobic ligands access the receptor binding site from the lipid bilayer not only because of their low solubility in water but also because of a large N-terminal domain plug preventing access to the orthosteric binding site from the extracellular milieu. In order to identify the most probable ligand exit pathway from lipid receptors CB1, S1P1 and LPA1 orthosteric binding sites we performed at least three repeats of steered molecular dynamics simulations in which ligands were pulled in various directions. For specific ligands being agonists, the supervised molecular dynamics approach was used to simulate the ligand entry events to the inactive receptor structures. For all investigated receptors the ligand entry/exit pathway goes through the gate between transmembrane helices TM1 and TM7, however, in some cases it combined with a direction toward water milieu.

Differentiating between Inactive and Active States of Rhodopsin by Atomic Force Microscopy in Native Membranes.

Membrane proteins, including G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), present a challenge in studying their structural properties under physiological conditions. Moreover, to better understand the activity of proteins requires examination of single molecule behaviors rather than ensemble averaged behaviors. Force-distance curve-based AFM (FD-AFM) was utilized to directly probe and localize the conformational states of a GPCR within the membrane at nanoscale resolution based on the mechanical properties of the receptor. FD-AFM was applied to rhodopsin, the light receptor and a prototypical GPCR, embedded in native rod outer segment disc membranes from photoreceptor cells of the retina in mice. Both FD-AFM and computational studies on coarse-grained models of rhodopsin revealed that the active state of the receptor has a higher Young's modulus compared to the inactive state of the receptor. Thus, the inactive and active states of rhodopsin could be differentiated based on the stiffness of the receptor. Differentiating the states based on the Young's modulus allowed for the mapping of the different states within the membrane. Quantifying the active states present in the membrane containing the constitutively active G90D rhodopsin mutant or apoprotein opsin revealed that most receptors adopt an active state. Traditionally, constitutive activity of GPCRs has been described in terms of two-state models where the receptor can achieve only a single active state. FD-AFM data are inconsistent with a two-state model but instead require models that incorporate multiple active states.

Interaction of the middle domains stabilizes Hsp90α dimer in a closed conformation with high affinity for p23.

The human genome encodes two highly similar cytosolic Hsp90 proteins called isoforms Hsp90α and Hsp90ß. Of the 300 client proteins for Hsp90 identified so far only a handful interact specifically with one Hsp90 isoform. Here we report for the first time that Hsp90 cochaperone p23 binds preferentially to Hsp90α and that this interaction is mediated by the middle domain of Hsp90α. Based on the homology modeling, we infer that the middle domains in the Hsp90α dimer bind stronger with each other than in the Hsp90ß dimer. Therefore, compared to Hsp90ß, Hsp90α may adopt closed conformation more easily. Hsp90 interacts with p23 in the closed conformation. Hsp90α binds human recombinant p23 about three times stronger than Hsp90ß but with significantly smaller exothermic enthalpy as determined by isothermal titration calorimetry of direct binding between the purified proteins. As p23 binds to Hsp90 in a closed conformation, stabilization of the Hsp90α dimer in the closed conformation by its middle domains explains preference of p23 to this Hsp90 isoform.

Computational approach for the assessment of inhibitory potency against beta-amyloid aggregation.

Beta-amyloid (Aß) plaques are one of the hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. Their presence in the brain leads to neurodegeneration and memory decline. Therefore, search for new drugs able to decrease formation of such deposits is of great interest. Our previously developed multifunctional compounds inhibited transformation of monomers into fibrils. Herein, we describe the computational approach for the assessment of inhibitory activity against Aß aggregation. The influence of novel inhibitors on amyloid Aß17-42 was studied by employing of molecular docking and all-atom molecular dynamics simulations. We found that the number of intermolecular backbone hydrogen bonds at the end of 100ns MD simulation was correlated with the level of anti-aggregation potency of studied compounds. Such data may be successfully applied to in silico design of novel inhibitors of Aß aggregation.

Quaternary structures of opsin in live cells revealed by FRET spectrometry.

Rhodopsin is a prototypical G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that initiates phototransduction in the retina. The receptor consists of the apoprotein opsin covalently linked to the inverse agonist 11-cis retinal. Rhodopsin and opsin have been shown to form oligomers within the outer segment disc membranes of rod photoreceptor cells. However, the physiological relevance of the observed oligomers has been questioned since observations were made on samples prepared from the retina at low temperatures. To investigate the oligomeric status of opsin in live cells at body temperatures, we utilized a novel approach called Förster resonance energy transfer spectrometry, which previously has allowed the determination of the stoichiometry and geometry (i.e. quaternary structure) of various GPCRs. In the current study, we have extended the method to additionally determine whether or not a mixture of oligomeric forms of opsin exists and in what proportion. The application of this improved method revealed that opsin expressed in live Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells at 37°C exists as oligomers of various sizes. At lower concentrations, opsin existed in an equilibrium of dimers and tetramers. The tetramers were in the shape of a near-rhombus. At higher concentrations of the receptor, higher-order oligomers began to form. Thus, a mixture of different oligomeric forms of opsin is present in the membrane of live CHO cells and oligomerization occurs in a concentration-dependent manner. The general principles underlying the concentration-dependent oligomerization of opsin may be universal and apply to other GPCRs as well.

Hydrophobic Ligand Entry and Exit Pathways of the CB1 Cannabinoid Receptor.

It has been reported that some hydrophobic ligands of G-protein-coupled receptors access the receptor's binding site from the membrane rather than from bulk water. In order to identify the most probable ligand entrance pathway into the CB1 receptor, we performed several steered molecular dynamics (SMD) simulations of two CB1 agonists, THC and anandamide, pulling them from the receptor's binding site with constant velocity. The four main directions of ligand pulling were probed: between helices TM4 and TM5, between TM5 and TM6, between TM7 and TM1/TM2, and toward the bulk water. The smallest forces were measured during pulling between TM7 and TM1/TM2. We also performed supervised molecular dynamics (SuMD) simulations for both anandamide and THC entering the CB1 receptor's binding site and found the same pathway as in the pulling simulations. The residues F1742.61 and F1772.64 (both on the TM2 helix) are involved in the gating mechanism and, by forming π-π interactions with ligand molecules, facilitated the ligand orientation required for passage. Using SuMD we also found an alternative binding site for THC. The results of mutagenesis studies evidencing that residues F1742.61 and F1772.64 are important for CB1 ligand binding are in agreement with our observations.