PAI-1 Regulates the Cytoskeleton and Intrinsic Stiffness of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells.

BACKGROUND: Plasma concentration of PAI-1 (plasminogen activator inhibitor-1) correlates with arterial stiffness. Vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) express PAI-1, and the intrinsic stiffness of SMCs is a major determinant of total arterial stiffness. We hypothesized that PAI-1 promotes SMC stiffness by regulating the cytoskeleton and that pharmacological inhibition of PAI-1 decreases SMC and aortic stiffness. METHODS: PAI-039, a specific inhibitor of PAI-1, and small interfering RNA were used to inhibit PAI-1 expression in cultured human SMCs. Effects of PAI-1 inhibition on SMC stiffness, F-actin (filamentous actin) content, and cytoskeleton-modulating enzymes were assessed. WT (wild-type) and PAI-1-deficient murine SMCs were used to determine PAI-039 specificity. RNA sequencing was performed to determine the effects of PAI-039 on SMC gene expression. In vivo effects of PAI-039 were assessed by aortic pulse wave velocity. RESULTS: PAI-039 significantly reduced intrinsic stiffness of human SMCs, which was accompanied by a significant decrease in cytoplasmic F-actin content. PAI-1 gene knockdown also decreased cytoplasmic F-actin. PAI-1 inhibition significantly increased the activity of cofilin, an F-actin depolymerase, in WT murine SMCs, but not in PAI-1-deficient SMCs. RNA-sequencing analysis suggested that PAI-039 upregulates AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) signaling in SMCs, which was confirmed by Western blotting. Inhibition of AMPK prevented activation of cofilin by PAI-039. In mice, PAI-039 significantly decreased aortic stiffness and tunica media F-actin content without altering the elastin or collagen content. CONCLUSIONS: PAI-039 decreases intrinsic SMC stiffness and cytoplasmic stress fiber content. These effects are mediated by AMPK-dependent activation of cofilin. PAI-039 also decreases aortic stiffness in vivo. These findings suggest that PAI-1 is an important regulator of the SMC cytoskeleton and that pharmacological inhibition of PAI-1 has the potential to prevent and treat cardiovascular diseases involving arterial stiffening.

Neuraminidase-induced externalization of phosphatidylserine activates ADAM17 and impairs insulin signaling in endothelial cells.

Endothelial insulin resistance represents a causal factor in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and vascular disease, thus the need to identify molecular mechanisms underlying defects in endothelial insulin signaling. We previously have shown that a disintegrin and metalloproteinase-17 (ADAM17) is increased while insulin receptor α-subunit (IRα) is decreased in the vasculature of patients with T2D, leading to impaired insulin-induced vasodilation. We have also demonstrated that ADAM17 sheddase activity targets IRα; however, the mechanisms driving endothelial ADAM17 activity in T2D are largely unknown. Herein, we report that externalization of phosphatidylserine (PS) to the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane causes ADAM17-mediated shedding of IRα and blunting of insulin signaling in endothelial cells. Furthermore, we demonstrate that endothelial PS externalization is mediated by the phospholipid scramblase anoctamin-6 (ANO6) and that this process can be stimulated by neuraminidase, a soluble enzyme that cleaves sialic acid residues. Of note, we demonstrate that men and women with T2D display increased levels of neuraminidase activity in plasma, relative to age-matched healthy individuals, and this occurs in conjunction with increased ADAM17 activity and impaired leg blood flow responses to endogenous insulin. Collectively, this work reveals the neuraminidase-ANO6-ADAM17 axis as a novel potential target for restoring endothelial insulin sensitivity in T2D.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This work provides the first evidence that neuraminidase, an enzyme increased in the circulation of men and women with type 2 diabetes (T2D), promotes anoctamin-6 (ANO6)-dependent externalization of phosphatidylserine in endothelial cells, which in turn leads to activation of a disintegrin and metalloproteinase-17 (ADAM17) and consequent shedding of the insulin receptor-α from the cell surface. Hence, this work supports that consideration should be given to the neuraminidase-ANO6-ADAM17 axis as a novel potential target for restoring endothelial insulin sensitivity in T2D.

Neuraminidase inhibition improves endothelial function in diabetic mice.

Neuraminidases cleave sialic acids from glycocalyx structures and plasma neuraminidase activity is elevated in type 2 diabetes (T2D). Therefore, we hypothesize circulating neuraminidase degrades the endothelial glycocalyx and diminishes flow-mediated dilation (FMD), whereas its inhibition restores shear mechanosensation and endothelial function in T2D settings. We found that compared with controls, subjects with T2D have higher plasma neuraminidase activity, reduced plasma nitrite concentrations, and diminished FMD. Ex vivo and in vivo neuraminidase exposure diminished FMD and reduced endothelial glycocalyx presence in mouse arteries. In cultured endothelial cells, neuraminidase reduced glycocalyx coverage. Inhalation of the neuraminidase inhibitor, zanamivir, reduced plasma neuraminidase activity, enhanced endothelial glycocalyx length, and improved FMD in diabetic mice. In humans, a single-arm trial (NCT04867707) of zanamivir inhalation did not reduce plasma neuraminidase activity, improved glycocalyx length, or enhanced FMD. Although zanamivir plasma concentrations in mice reached 225.8 ± 22.0 ng/mL, in humans were only 40.0 ± 7.2 ng/mL. These results highlight the potential of neuraminidase inhibition for ameliorating endothelial dysfunction in T2D and suggest the current Food and Drug Administration-approved inhaled dosage of zanamivir is insufficient to achieve desired outcomes in humans.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This work identifies neuraminidase as a key mediator of endothelial dysfunction in type 2 diabetes that may serve as a biomarker for impaired endothelial function and predictive of development and progression of cardiovascular pathologies associated with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Data show that intervention with the neuraminidase inhibitor zanamivir at effective plasma concentrations may represent a novel pharmacological strategy for restoring the glycocalyx and ameliorating endothelial dysfunction.

ADAM17 cleaves the insulin receptor ectodomain on endothelial cells and causes vascular insulin resistance.

Inflammation and vascular insulin resistance are hallmarks of type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, several potential mechanisms causing abnormal endothelial insulin signaling in T2D need further investigation. Evidence indicates that the activity of ADAM17 (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase-17) and the presence of insulin receptor (IR) in plasma are increased in subjects with T2D. Accordingly, we hypothesized that in T2D, increased ADAM17 activity sheds the IR ectodomain from endothelial cells and impairs insulin-induced vasodilation. We used small visceral arteries isolated from a cross-sectional study of subjects with and without T2D undergoing bariatric surgery, human cultured endothelial cells, and recombinant proteins to test our hypothesis. Here, we demonstrate that arteries from subjects with T2D had increased ADAM17 expression, reduced presence of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-3 (TIMP3), decreased extracellular IRα, and impaired insulin-induced vasodilation versus those from subjects without T2D. In vitro, active ADAM17 cleaved the ectodomain of the IRß subunit. Endothelial cells with ADAM17 overexpression or exposed to the protein kinase-C activator, PMA, had increased ADAM17 activity, decreased IRα presence on the cell surface, and increased IR shedding. Moreover, pharmacological inhibition of ADAM17 with TAPI-0 rescued PMA-induced IR shedding and insulin-signaling impairments in endothelial cells and insulin-stimulated vasodilation in human arteries. In aggregate, our findings suggest that ADAM17-mediated shedding of IR from the endothelial surface impairs insulin-mediated vasodilation. Thus, we propose that inhibition of ADAM17 sheddase activity should be considered a strategy to restore vascular insulin sensitivity in T2D.NEW & NOTEWORTHY To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the involvement of ADAM17 in causing impaired insulin-induced vasodilation in T2D. We provide evidence that ADAM17 activity is increased in the vasculature of patients with T2D and support the notion that ADAM17-mediated shedding of endothelial IRα ectodomains is a novel mechanism causing vascular insulin resistance. Our results highlight that targeting ADAM17 activity may be a potential therapeutic strategy to correct vascular insulin resistance in T2D.

Brief serotonin exposure initiates arteriolar inward remodeling processes in vivo that involve transglutaminase activation and actin cytoskeleton reorganization.

Inward remodeling of the resistance vasculature is strongly associated with life-threatening cardiovascular events. Previous studies have demonstrated that both actin polymerization and the activation of transglutaminases mediate early stages of the transition from a structurally normal vessel to an inwardly remodeled one. Ex vivo studies further suggest that a few hours of exposure to vasoconstrictor agonists induces inward remodeling in the absence of changes in intraluminal pressure. Here we report that a short, 10-min, topical exposure to serotonin (5-HT) + N(ω)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester hydrochloride (l-NAME) was sufficient to initiate inward remodeling processes in rat cremasteric feed arterioles (100-200 µm lumen diameter), in vivo. Addition of the transglutaminase inhibitor, cystamine, blocked the in vivo remodeling. We further demonstrate that, in isolated arterioles, 5-HT + l-NAME activates transglutaminases and modulates the phosphorylation state of cofilin, a regulator of actin depolymerization. The 5-HT + l-NAME-induced remodeling process in isolated arterioles was also inhibited by an inhibitor of Lim Kinase, the kinase that phosphorylates and inactivates cofilin. Therefore, our results indicate that a brief vasoconstriction induced by 5-HT + l-NAME is able to reduce the passive structural diameter of arterioles through processes that are dependent on the activation of transglutaminases and Lim kinase, and the subsequent phosphorylation of cofilin.

The obligatory role of the actin cytoskeleton on inward remodeling induced by dithiothreitol activation of endogenous transglutaminase in isolated arterioles.

Inward remodeling is the most prevalent structural change found in the resistance arteries and arterioles of hypertensive individuals. Separate studies have shown that the inward remodeling process requires transglutaminase activation and the polymerization of actin. Therefore, we hypothesize that inward remodeling induced via endogenous transglutaminase activation requires and depends on actin cytoskeletal structures. To test this hypothesis, isolated and cannulated rat cremaster arterioles were exposed to dithiothreitol (DTT) to activate endogenous transglutaminases. DTT induced concentration-dependent vasoconstriction that was suppressed by coincubation with cystamine or cytochalasin-D to inhibit tranglutaminase activity or actin polymerization, respectively. Prolonged (4 h) exposure to DTT caused arteriolar inward remodeling that was also blocked by the presence of cystamine or cytochalasin-D. DTT inwardly remodeled arterioles had reduced passive diameters, augmented wall thickness-to-lumen ratios and altered elastic characteristics that were reverted upon disruption of the actin cytoskeleton with mycalolide-B. In freshly isolated arterioles, exposure to mycalolide-B caused no changes in their passive diameters or their elastic characteristics. These results suggest that, in arterioles, the early stages of the inward remodeling process induced by prolonged endogenous transglutaminase activation require actin dynamics and depend on changes in actin cytoskeletal structures.

Plasma syndecan-1 concentration as a biomarker for endothelial glycocalyx degradation in septic adult horses.

BACKGROUND: Limited information is available regarding endothelial glycocalyx degradation during sepsis in horses. Plasma syndecan-1 concentrations are increased in consequence of sepsis in other species and have been useful for prognostication. OBJECTIVES: To determine whether plasma syndecan-1 levels are increased in adult horses affected with sepsis. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. METHODS: Adult horses were assigned to one of three groups based on results of physical and laboratory examinations, clinical diagnosis, and results of previously described SIRS classification: Group 1 horses included healthy, nonseptic horses; Group 2 included horses in which clinical illness was identified but that were not considered to be septic; Group 3 included horses with a clinical diagnosis of sepsis. Plasma syndecan-1 concentration was determined in blood obtained at admission into the hospital for each horse, using an equine specific ELISA. Data were analysed using ANOVA and linear regression (p ≤ 0.05). RESULTS: One hundred and ninety-one horses were included and divided into three groups. Scores for SIRS were highest for Group 3 horses and lowest in Groups 1 and 2. Plasma syndecan-1 concentrations in Group 3 horses (50.73 ± 84.24 µg/ml; n = 42) were greater than those for Group 1 (15.69 ± 11.28 µg/ml; n = 66) and Group 2 (16.88 ± 15.30 µg/ml; n = 83). There was no difference regarding syndecan concentrations between Groups 1 and 2. MAIN LIMITATIONS: Retrospective study design, solitary time point of measurement for each patient, and lack of a widely accepted consensus regarding definitive diagnosis of sepsis in adult horses. CONCLUSIONS: Circulating plasma levels of syndecan-1, a biochemical marker of endothelial glycocalyx damage, are increased in septic adult horses.

Endothelial Glycocalyx.

The glycocalyx is a polysaccharide structure that protrudes from the body of a cell. It is primarily conformed of glycoproteins and proteoglycans, which provide communication, electrostatic charge, ionic buffering, permeability, and mechanosensation-mechanotransduction capabilities to cells. In blood vessels, the endothelial glycocalyx that projects into the vascular lumen separates the vascular wall from the circulating blood. Such a physical location allows a number of its components, including sialic acid, glypican-1, heparan sulfate, and hyaluronan, to participate in the mechanosensation-mechanotransduction of blood flow-dependent shear stress, which results in the synthesis of nitric oxide and flow-mediated vasodilation. The endothelial glycocalyx also participates in the regulation of vascular permeability and the modulation of inflammatory responses, including the processes of leukocyte rolling and extravasation. Its structural architecture and negative charge work to prevent macromolecules greater than approximately 70 kDa and cationic molecules from binding and flowing out of the vasculature. This also prevents the extravasation of pathogens such as bacteria and virus, as well as that of tumor cells. Due to its constant exposure to shear and circulating enzymes such as neuraminidase, heparanase, hyaluronidase, and matrix metalloproteinases, the endothelial glycocalyx is in a continuous process of degradation and renovation. A balance favoring degradation is associated with a variety of pathologies including atherosclerosis, hypertension, vascular aging, metastatic cancer, and diabetic vasculopathies. Consequently, ongoing research efforts are focused on deciphering the mechanisms that promote glycocalyx degradation or limit its syntheses, as well as on therapeutic approaches to improve glycocalyx integrity with the goal of reducing vascular disease. © 2022 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 12: 1-31, 2022.

SGLT2 inhibition attenuates arterial dysfunction and decreases vascular F-actin content and expression of proteins associated with oxidative stress in aged mice.

Aging of the vasculature is characterized by endothelial dysfunction and arterial stiffening, two key events in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Treatment with sodium glucose transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors is now known to decrease cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in type 2 diabetes. However, whether SGLT2 inhibition attenuates vascular aging is unknown. We first confirmed in a cohort of adult subjects that aging is associated with impaired endothelial function and increased arterial stiffness and that these two variables are inversely correlated. Next, we investigated whether SGLT2 inhibition with empagliflozin (Empa) ameliorates endothelial dysfunction and reduces arterial stiffness in aged mice with confirmed vascular dysfunction. Specifically, we assessed mesenteric artery endothelial function and stiffness (via flow-mediated dilation and pressure myography mechanical responses, respectively) and aortic stiffness (in vivo via pulse wave velocity and ex vivo via atomic force microscopy) in Empa-treated (14 mg/kg/day for 6 weeks) and control 80-week-old C57BL/6 J male mice. We report that Empa-treated mice exhibited improved mesenteric endothelial function compared with control, in parallel with reduced mesenteric artery and aortic stiffness. Additionally, Empa-treated mice had greater vascular endothelial nitric oxide synthase activation, lower phosphorylated cofilin, and filamentous actin content, with downregulation of pathways involved in production of reactive oxygen species. Our findings demonstrate that Empa improves endothelial function and reduces arterial stiffness in a preclinical model of aging, making SGLT2 inhibition a potential therapeutic alternative to reduce the progression of CVD in older individuals.

LIMK (LIM Kinase) Inhibition Prevents Vasoconstriction- and Hypertension-Induced Arterial Stiffening and Remodeling.

Increased arterial stiffness and vascular remodeling precede and are consequences of hypertension. They also contribute to the development and progression of life-threatening cardiovascular diseases. Yet, there are currently no agents specifically aimed at preventing or treating arterial stiffening and remodeling. Previous research indicates that vascular smooth muscle actin polymerization participates in the initial stages of arterial stiffening and remodeling and that LIMK (LIM kinase) promotes F-actin formation and stabilization via cofilin phosphorylation and consequent inactivation. Herein, we hypothesize that LIMK inhibition is able to prevent vasoconstriction- and hypertension-associated arterial stiffening and inward remodeling. We found that small visceral arteries isolated from hypertensive subjects are stiffer and have greater cofilin phosphorylation than those from nonhypertensives. We also show that LIMK inhibition prevents arterial stiffening and inward remodeling in isolated human small visceral arteries exposed to prolonged vasoconstriction. Using cultured vascular smooth muscle cells, we determined that LIMK inhibition prevents vasoconstrictor agonists from increasing cofilin phosphorylation, F-actin volume, and cell cortex stiffness. We further show that localized LIMK inhibition prevents arteriolar inward remodeling in hypertensive mice. This indicates that hypertension is associated with increased vascular smooth muscle cofilin phosphorylation, cytoskeletal stress fiber formation, and heightened arterial stiffness. Our data further suggest that pharmacological inhibition of LIMK prevents vasoconstriction-induced arterial stiffening, in part, via reductions in vascular smooth muscle F-actin content and cellular stiffness. Accordingly, LIMK inhibition should represent a promising therapeutic means to stop the progression of arterial stiffening and remodeling in hypertension.

Arterial Stiffening in Western Diet-Fed Mice Is Associated with Increased Vascular Elastin, Transforming Growth Factor-ß, and Plasma Neuraminidase.

Consumption of excess fat and carbohydrate (Western diet, WD) is associated with alterations in the structural characteristics of blood vessels. This vascular remodeling contributes to the development of cardiovascular disease, particularly as it affects conduit and resistance arteries. Vascular remodeling is often associated with changes in the elastin-rich internal elastic lamina (IEL) and the activation of transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß. In addition, obesity and type II diabetes have been associated with increased serum neuraminidase, an enzyme known to increase TGF-ß cellular output. Therefore, we hypothesized that WD-feeding would induce structural modifications to the IEL of mesenteric resistance arteries in mice, and that these changes would be associated with increased levels of circulating neuraminidase and the up-regulation of elastin and TGF-ß in the arterial wall. To test this hypothesis, a WD, high in fat and sugar, was used to induce obesity in mice, and the effect of this diet on the structure of mesenteric resistance arteries was investigated. 4-week old, Post-weaning mice were fed either a normal diet (ND) or WD for 16 weeks. Mechanically, arteries from WD-fed mice were stiffer and less distensible, with marginally increased wall stress for a given strain, and a significantly increased Young's modulus of elasticity. Structurally, the wall cross-sectional area and the number of fenestrae found in the internal elastic lamina (IEL) of mesenteric arteries from mice fed a WD were significantly smaller than those of arteries from the ND-fed mice. There was also a significant increase in the volume of elastin, but not collagen in arteries from the WD cohort. Plasma levels of neuraminidase and the amount of TGF-ß in mesenteric arteries were elevated in mice fed a WD, while ex vivo, cultured vascular smooth muscle cells exposed to neuraminidase secreted greater amounts of tropoelastin and TGF-ß than those exposed to vehicle. These data suggest that consumption of a diet high in fat and sugar causes stiffening of the vascular wall in resistance arteries through a process that may involve increased neuraminidase and TGF-ß activity, elevated production of elastin, and a reduction in the size and number of fenestrae in the arterial IEL.

Maternal Hyperleptinemia Is Associated with Male Offspring's Altered Vascular Function and Structure in Mice.

Children of mothers with gestational diabetes have greater risk of developing hypertension but little is known about the mechanisms by which this occurs. The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that high maternal concentrations of leptin during pregnancy, which are present in mothers with gestational diabetes and/or obesity, alter blood pressure, vascular structure and vascular function in offspring. Wildtype (WT) offspring of hyperleptinemic, normoglycemic, Leprdb/+ dams were compared to genotype matched offspring of WT-control dams. Vascular function was assessed in male offspring at 6, and at 31 weeks of age after half the offspring had been fed a high fat, high sucrose diet (HFD) for 6 weeks. Blood pressure was increased by HFD but not affected by maternal hyperleptinemia. On a standard diet, offspring of hyperleptinemic dams had outwardly remodeled mesenteric arteries and an enhanced vasodilatory response to insulin. In offspring of WT but not Leprdb/+ dams, HFD induced vessel hypertrophy and enhanced vasodilatory responses to acetylcholine, while HFD reduced insulin responsiveness in offspring of hyperleptinemic dams. Offspring of hyperleptinemic dams had stiffer arteries regardless of diet. Therefore, while maternal hyperleptinemia was largely beneficial to offspring vascular health under a standard diet, it had detrimental effects in offspring fed HFD. These results suggest that circulating maternal leptin concentrations may interact with other factors in the pre- and post -natal environments to contribute to altered vascular function in offspring of diabetic pregnancies.