Salmonella Typhimurium exploits host polyamines for assembly of the type 3 secretion machinery.

Bacterial pathogens utilize the factors of their hosts to infect them, but which factors they exploit remain poorly defined. Here, we show that a pathogenic Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (STm) exploits host polyamines for the functional expression of virulence factors. An STm mutant strain lacking principal genes required for polyamine synthesis and transport exhibited impaired infectivity in mice. A polyamine uptake-impaired strain of STm was unable to inject effectors of the type 3 secretion system into host cells due to a failure of needle assembly. STm infection stimulated host polyamine production by increasing arginase expression. The decline in polyamine levels caused by difluoromethylornithine, which inhibits host polyamine production, attenuated STm colonization, whereas polyamine supplementation augmented STm pathogenesis. Our work reveals that host polyamines are a key factor promoting STm infection, and therefore a promising therapeutic target for bacterial infection.

Inhibition of Polyamine Catabolism Reduces Cellular Senescence.

The aging of the global population has necessitated the identification of effective anti-aging technologies based on scientific evidence. Polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine) are essential for cell growth and function. Age-related reductions in polyamine levels have been shown to be associated with reduced cognitive and physical functions. We have previously found that the expression of spermine oxidase (SMOX) increases with age; however, the relationship between SMOX expression and cellular senescence remains unclear. Therefore, we investigated the relationship between increased SMOX expression and cellular senescence using human-liver-derived HepG2 cells. Intracellular spermine levels decreased and spermidine levels increased with the serial passaging of cells (aged cells), and aged cells showed increased expression of SMOX. The levels of acrolein-conjugated protein, which is produced during spermine degradation, also increases. Senescence-associated ß-gal activity was increased in aged cells, and the increase was suppressed by MDL72527, an inhibitor of acetylpolyamine oxidase (AcPAO) and SMOX, both of which are enzymes that catalyze polyamine degradation. DNA damage accumulated in aged cells and MDL72527 reduced DNA damage. These results suggest that the SMOX-mediated degradation of spermine plays an important role in cellular senescence. Our results demonstrate that cellular senescence can be controlled by inhibiting spermine degradation using a polyamine-catabolizing enzyme inhibitor.

Identification of a novel acetylated form of branched-chain polyamine from a hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis.

Long/branched-chain polyamines are unique polycations found in thermophiles. The hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis contains spermidine and a branched-chain polyamine, N4-bis(aminopropyl)spermidine, as major polyamines. The metabolic pathways associated with branched-chain polyamines remain unknown. Here, we used gas chromatography and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analyses to identify a new acetylated polyamine, N4-bis(aminopropyl)-N1-acetylspermidine, from T. kodakarensis; this polyamine was not found in other micro-organisms. The amounts of branched-chain polyamine and its acetylated form increased with temperature, indicating that branched-chain polyamines are important for growth at higher temperatures. The amount of quaternary acetylated polyamine produced was associated with the amount of N4-bis(aminopropyl)spermidine in the cell. The ratio of acetylated to non-acetylated forms was higher in the stationary phase than in the logarithmic growth phase under high-temperature stress condition.

Identification and characterization of natural microbial products that alter the free d-aspartate content of mammalian cells.

Mammalian cells possess the molecular apparatus necessary to take up, degrade, synthesize, and release free d-aspartate, which plays an important role in physiological functions within the body. Here, biologically active microbial compounds and pre-existing drugs were screened for their ability to alter the intracellular d-aspartate level in mammalian cells, and several candidate compounds were identified. Detailed analytical studies suggested that two of these compounds, mithramycin A and geldanamycin, suppress the biosynthesis of d-aspartate in cells. Further studies suggested that these compounds act at distinct sites within the cell. These compounds may advance our current understanding of biosynthesis of d-aspartate in mammals, a whole picture of which remains to be disclosed.

Simultaneous determination of N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine, N(G),N(G)-dimethyl-L-arginine, N(G),N(G')-dimethyl-L-arginine, and L-arginine using monolithic silica disk-packed spin columns and a monolithic silica column.

We have developed and validated a high-performance liquid chromatography method that uses monolithic silica disk-packed spin columns and a monolithic silica column for the simultaneous determination of N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine, N(G),N(G)-dimethyl-L-arginine, and N(G),N(G')-dimethyl-L-arginine in human plasma. For solid-phase extraction, our method employs a centrifugal spin column packed with monolithic silica bonded to propyl benzenesulfonic acid as a cation exchanger. After pretreatment, the methylated arginines are converted to fluorescent derivatives with 4-fluoro-7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole, and then the derivatives are separated on a monolithic silica column. L-arginine concentration was also determined in diluted samples. Standard calibration curves revealed that the assay was linear in the concentration range 0.2-1.0 µM for methylated arginines and 40-200 µM for L-arginine. Linear regression of the calibration curve yielded equations with correlation coefficients of 0.999 (r(2)). The sensitivity was satisfactory, with a limit of detection ranging from 3.75 to 9.0 fmol for all four compounds. The RSDs were 4.3-4.8% (intraday) and 3.0-6.8% (interday). When this method was applied to samples from six healthy donors, the detected concentrations of N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine, N(G),N(G)-dimethyl-L-arginine, N(G),N(G')-dimethyl-L-arginine and L-arginine were 0.05 ± 0.01, 0.41 ± 0.07, 0.59 ± 0.11, and 83.8 ± 30.43 µM (n = 6), respectively.

Caldomycin, a new guanidopolyamine produced by a novel agmatine homocoupling enzyme involved in homospermidine biosynthesis.

An extreme thermophilic bacterium, Thermus thermophilus produces more than 20 unusual polyamines, but their biosynthetic pathways, including homospermidine, are not yet fully understood. Two types of homospermidine synthases have been identified in plants and bacteria, which use spermidine and putrescine or two molecules of putrescine as substrates. However, homospermidine synthases with such substrate specificity have not been identified in T. thermophilus. Here we identified a novel agmatine homocoupling enzyme that is involved in homospermidine biosynthesis in T. thermophilus. The reaction mechanism is different from that of a previously described homospermidine synthase, and involves conjugation of two molecules of agmatine, which produces a diamidino derivative of homospermidine (caldomycin) as an immediate precursor of homospermidine. We conclude that there is a homospermidine biosynthetic pathway from agmatine via caldomycin synthase followed by ureohydrolase in T. thermophilus. Furthermore, it is shown that caldomycin is a novel compound existing in nature.

The antiviral drug acyclovir is a slow-binding inhibitor of (D)-amino acid oxidase.

d-Amino acid oxidase (DAO) is a degradative enzyme that is stereospecific for d-amino acids, including d-serine and d-alanine, which are believed to be coagonists of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. To identify a new class of DAO inhibitor(s) that can be used to elucidate the molecular details of the active site environment of DAO, manifold biologically active compounds of microbial origin and pre-existing drugs were screened for their ability to inhibit DAO activity, and several compounds were identified as candidates. One of these compounds, acyclovir (ACV), a well-known antiviral drug used for the treatment of herpesvirus infections, was characterized and evaluated as a novel DAO inhibitor in vitro. Analysis showed that ACV acts on DAO as a reversible slow-binding inhibitor, and interestingly, the time required to achieve equilibrium between DAO, ACV, and the DAO/ACV complex was highly dependent on temperature. The binding mechanism of ACV to DAO was investigated in detail by several approaches, including kinetic analysis, structural modeling of DAO complexed with ACV, and site-specific mutagenesis of an active site residue postulated to be involved in the binding of ACV. The results confirm that ACV is a novel, active site-directed inhibitor of DAO that can be a valuable tool for investigating the structure-function relationships of DAO, including the molecular details of the active site environment of DAO. In particular, it appears that ACV can serve as an active site probe to study the structural basis of temperature-induced conformational changes of DAO.

Polyamines produced by an extreme thermophile are essential for cell growth at high temperature.

An extreme thermophile, Thermus thermophilus grows at an optimum temperature of around 70°C and produces 16 different polyamines including long-chain and branched-chain polyamines. We found that the composition of polyamines in the thermophile cells changes with culture temperature. Long-chain and branched-chain polyamines (unusual polyamines) were increased in the cells grown at high temperature such as 80°C, but they were minor components in the cells grown at relatively lower temperature such as 60°C. The effects of polyamines on cell growth were studied using T. thermophilus HB8 ΔspeA deficient in arginine decarboxylase. Cell growth of this mutant strain was significantly decreased at 70°C. This mutant strain cannot produce polyamines and grows poorly at 75°C. It was also determined whether polyamines are directly involved in protecting DNA from DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) induced by heat. Polyamines protected DNA against double-strand breaks. Therefore, polyamines play essential roles in cell growth at extremely high temperature through maintaining a functional conformation of DNA against DSBs and depurination.

Role of the active site residues arginine-216 and arginine-237 in the substrate specificity of mammalian D-aspartate oxidase.

D-aspartate oxidase (DDO) and D-amino acid oxidase (DAO) are flavin adenine dinucleotide-containing flavoproteins that catalyze the oxidative deamination of D-amino acids. Unlike DAO, which acts on several neutral and basic D-amino acids, DDO is highly specific for acidic D-amino acids. Based on molecular modeling and simulated annealing docking analyses, a recombinant mouse DDO carrying two substitutions (Arg-216 to Leu and Arg-237 to Tyr) was generated (R216L-R237Y variant). This variant and two previously constructed single-point mutants of mouse DDO (R216L and R237Y variants) were characterized to investigate the role of Arg-216 and Arg-237 in the substrate specificity of mouse DDO. The R216L-R237Y and R216L variants acquired a broad specificity for several neutral and basic D-amino acids, and showed a considerable decrease in activity against acidic D-amino acids. The R237Y variant, however, did not show any additional specificity for neutral or basic D-amino acids and its activity against acidic D-amino acids was greatly reduced. The kinetic properties of these variants indicated that the Arg-216 residue is important for the catalytic activity and substrate specificity of mouse DDO. However, Arg-237 is, apparently, only marginally involved in substrate recognition, but is important for catalytic activity. Notably, the substrate specificity of the R216L-R237Y variant differed significantly from that of the R216L variant, suggesting that Arg-237 has subsidiary effects on substrate specificity. Additional experiments using several DDO and DAO inhibitors also suggested the involvement of Arg-216 in the substrate specificity and catalytic activity of mouse DDO and that Arg-237 is possibly involved in substrate recognition by this enzyme. Collectively, these results indicate that Arg-216 and Arg-237 play crucial and subsidiary role(s), respectively, in the substrate specificity of mouse DDO.

The role of protein L-isoaspartyl/D-aspartyl O-methyltransferase (PIMT) in intracellular signal transduction.

Under physiological conditions, L-aspartyl (L-Asp) and L-asparaginyl residues in proteins are spontaneously isomerized or racemized to D-aspartyl (D-Asp) or D,L-isoaspartyl (D,L-isoAsp) residue. These atypical Asp residues can interfere with protein activity and lead to disruption of cellular function. Protein L-isoaspartyl/D-aspartyl O-methyltransferase (PIMT) is a repair enzyme that initiates the conversion of L-isoAsp (or D-Asp) residues to L-Asp residues. PIMT-Deficient mice exhibit accumulation of L-isoAsp in several tissues and die from progressive epileptic seizures at a mean age of 42 days. However, the biological roles of PIMT are still largely unknown. To further our understanding of the function of this protein, we developed an assay to measure PIMT activity in cell lysates. Additionally, we generated PIMT-knockdown cells by stable transfection of HEK293 cells with PIMT small interfering (si) RNA. Northern blotting and immunoblot analysis revealed that PIMT mRNA and protein levels were significantly decreased in the knockdown cells. In addition, significant levels of proteins that contained isoAsp residues accumulated in these cells, and immunoblot analysis revealed that Raf-1, MEK, and ERK were hyperphosphorylated upon EGF stimulation compared to control cells. These results indicate that the ability to repair atypical Asp residues is important for normal MAP kinase signaling.

Comparative characterization of three D-aspartate oxidases and one D-amino acid oxidase from Caenorhabditis elegans.

Previously, we cloned cDNAs for four Caenorhabditis elegans genes (F20 Hp, C47Ap, F18Ep, and Y69Ap genes) that were annotated in the database as encoding D-amino acid oxidase (DAO) or D-aspartate oxidase (DDO) proteins. These genes were expressed in Escherichia coli, and the recombinant C47Ap and F18Ep were shown to have functional DDO activities, while Y69Ap had functional DAO activity. In this study, we improved the E. coli culture conditions for the production of recombinant F20 Hp and, following purification of the protein, revealed that it has functional DDO activity. The kinetic properties of recombinant C47Ap (DDO-1), F18Ep (DDO-2), F20 Hp (DDO-3), and Y69Ap (DAO) were also determined and compared with recombinant human DDO and DAO. In contrast to the low catalytic efficiency of human DDO for D-Glu, all three C. elegans DDOs showed higher catalytic efficiencies for D-Glu than D-Asp or N-methyl-D-Asp. The catalytic efficiency of C. elegans DAO for D-Ser was substantially lower than that of human DAO, while the C. elegans DAO was more efficient at deamination of basic D-amino acids (D-Arg and D-His) than human DAO. Collectively, our results indicate that C. elegans contains at least three genes that encode functional DDOs, and one gene encoding a functional DAO, and that these enzymes have different and distinctive properties.

Apoptotic inducers activate the release of D-aspartate through a hypotonic stimulus-triggered mechanism in PC12 cells.

We have characterized release of D-aspartate (D-Asp), a regulator of hormone synthesis and secretion, via a volume-sensitive organic anion channel (VSOC) in PC12 cells by studying its response to apoptotic stimuli. PC12 cells have been demonstrated to endogenously synthesize D-Asp. Apoptotic inducers, including staurosporin (STS), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, H(2)O(2), and C2-ceramide, activate the release of D-Asp through a hypotonic stimulus-triggered mechanism. Putative blockers of the anion channel, 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid (NPPB) and 4,4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-sulphonic acid (DIDS), significantly inhibited stress-induced D-Asp release under hypotonic conditions following the application of apoptotic inducers. Hypotonic conditions are essential for activation by apoptotic inducers. Phorbol 12-mirystate 13-acetate and the Ca(2+) ionophore A23187 increased D-Asp efflux via the VSOC, implying the involvement of intracellular Ca(2+) in the activation of the D-Asp efflux. However, hypotonic stress and STS had no effect on the concentration of intracellular Ca(2+) in PC12 cells. Furthermore, an unknown EGTA-sensitive factor(s), other than Ca(2+), and peroxynitrite may play pivotal roles in STS-enhanced D-Asp release.

High-performance liquid chromatographic method to measure protein L-isoaspartyl/D-aspartyl o-methyltransferase activity in cell lysates.

Protein L-isoaspartyl/D-aspartyl o-methyltransferase (PIMT) is a widely expressed protein repair enzyme that restores isomerized aspartyl residues to their normal configuration. Current methods for measuring PIMT activity have limited sensitivity or require radioactivity. We have developed a highly sensitive new assay method to measure PIMT activity in cell lysates. As a substrate, we used a fluorescently labeled delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP) that contains an isoaspartyl residue: 7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (NBD)-DSIP(isoAsp). The PIMT-catalyzed transfer of a methyl group onto this substrate can be detected with a simple high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) procedure. After the enzyme reaction, the methylated form of the peptide is stable and can be reproducibly separated from the unmethylated form in an acidic solvent and fluorometrically detected by HPLC. The limit of detection was estimated to be approximately 1 pmol of NBD-DSIP(isoAsp) (signal/noise ratio [S/N]=3), and the quantitation limit of the activity was approximately 18 microg of total cell lysate from HEK293 cells (10.7 pmol/min/mg protein). This assay method is sensitive enough to detect PIMT activity in biological samples without the use of radioisotopes, offering significant advantages over previously reported methods.

Cloning and functional characterization of Arabidopsis thaliana D-amino acid aminotransferase--D-aspartate behavior during germination.

The understanding of D-amino acid metabolism in higher plants lags far behind that in mammals, for which the biological functions of these unique amino acids have already been elucidated. In this article, we report on the biochemical behavior of D-amino acids (particularly D-Asp) and relevant metabolic enzymes in Arabidopsis thaliana. During germination and growth of the plant, a transient increase in D-Asp levels was observed, suggesting that D-Asp is synthesized in the plant. Administration of D-Asp suppressed growth, although the inhibitory mechanism responsible for this remains to be clarified. Exogenous D-Asp was efficiently incorporated and metabolized, and was converted to other D-amino acids (D-Glu and D-Ala). We then studied the related metabolic enzymes, and consequently cloned and characterized A. thaliana D-amino acid aminotransferase, which is presumably involved in the metabolism of D-Asp in the plant by catalyzing transamination between D-amino acids. This is the first report of cDNA cloning and functional characterization of a D-amino acid aminotransferase in eukaryotes. The results presented here provide important information for understanding the significance of D-amino acids in the metabolism of higher plants.

Suppression of protein l-isoaspartyl (d-aspartyl) methyltransferase results in hyperactivation of EGF-stimulated MEK-ERK signaling in cultured mammalian cells.

l-Aspartyl (l-Asp) and l-asparaginyl residues in proteins isomerize or racemize to d,l-isoaspartyl (d,l-isoAsp) or d-aspartyl (d-Asp) residues during protein aging. These atypical aspartyl residues can interfere with the biological function of the protein and lead to cellular dysfunction. Protein l-isoaspartyl (d-aspartyl) methyltransferase (PIMT) is a repair enzyme that facilitates conversion of l-isoAsp and d-Asp to l-Asp. PIMT deficient mice exhibit accumulation of l-isoAsp in several tissues and die, on average, 12 days after birth from progressive epileptic seizures with grand mal and myoclonus features. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms by which accumulation of the aberrant residues leads to cellular abnormalities. In this study, we established PIMT-knockdown cells using a short interfering RNA expression system and characterized the resultant molecular abnormalities in intracellular signaling pathways. PIMT-knockdown cells showed significant accumulation of proteins with isomerized residues, compared to control cells. In the PIMT-knockdown cells, Raf-1, MEK, and ERK, members of the MAPK cascade, were hyperphosphorylated after EGF stimulation compared to control cells. These results suggest that PIMT repair of abnormal proteins is necessary to maintain normal MAPK signaling.

The ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes, Ubc4 and Cdc34, mediate cadmium resistance in budding yeast through different mechanisms.

The expression of the genes encoding the ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes, Ubc4, Ubc5, and Ubc7, has been reported to be induced by cadmium in budding yeast. In contrast, we have reported that the overexpression of Cdc34, another ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, confers resistance to cadmium. In the present study, we examined the effects of overexpression of Ubc4, Ubc5, or Ubc7 on the sensitivity of budding yeast to cadmium. We found that yeast cells that overexpressed Ubc4, but not Ubc5 or Ubc7, showed similar cadmium resistance as yeast cells that overexpressed Cdc34. The ubiquitination levels of cellular proteins were significantly increased by overexpression of Ubc4 as well as by Cdc34. As previously reported, yeast cells overexpressing Cdc34 were resistant to cadmium even in the presence of the proteasome inhibitor MG132. However, the acquired resistance to cadmium by overexpression of Ubc4 was not observed in the presence of MG132. Cdc34 overexpression has been shown to inactivate the transcriptional activity of Met4 by accelerating its ubiquitination and to reduce expression of the MET25 gene, a target gene of Met4. Unlike Cdc34, overexpression of Ubc4 did not affect the expression of the MET25 gene. These findings suggest that the mechanism of acquired resistance to cadmium by overexpression of Ubc4 is different from that of Cdc34 and that Ubc4 confers resistance to cadmium by ubiquitination of proteins other than Met4 and accelerates the degradation of these proteins in the proteasomes.

Endocytic Ark/Prk kinases play a critical role in adriamycin resistance in both yeast and mammalian cells.

To elucidate the mechanism of acquired resistance to Adriamycin, we searched for genes that, when overexpressed, render Saccharomyces cerevisiae resistant to Adriamycin. We identified AKL1, a gene of which the function is unknown but is considered, nonetheless, to be a member of the Ark/Prk kinase family, which is involved in the regulation of endocytosis, on the basis of its deduced amino acid sequence. Among tested members of the Ark/Prk kinase family (Ark1, Prk1, and Akl1), overexpressed Prk1 also conferred Adriamycin resistance on yeast cells. Prk1 is known to dissociate the Sla1/Pan1/End3 complex, which is involved in endocytosis, by phosphorylating Sla1 and Pan1 in the complex. We showed that Akl1 promotes phosphorylation of Pan1 in this complex and reduces the endocytic ability of the cell, as does Prk1. Sla1- and End3-defective yeast cells were also resistant to Adriamycin and overexpression of Akl1 in these defective cells did not increase the degree of Adriamycin resistance, suggesting that Akl1 might reduce Adriamycin toxicity by reducing the endocytic ability of cells via a mechanism that involves the Sla1/Pan1/End3 complex and the phosphorylation of Pan1. We also found that HEK293 cells that overexpressed AAK1, a member of the human Ark/Prk family, were Adriamycin resistant. Our findings suggest that endocytosis might be involved in the mechanism of Adriamycin toxicity in yeast and human cells.

Caenorhabditis elegans has two genes encoding functional d-aspartate oxidases.

Four cDNA clones that were annotated in the database as encoding d-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) or d-aspartate oxidase (DASPO) were isolated by RT-PCR from Caenorhabditis elegans RNA. The proteins (Y69Ap, C47Ap, F18Ep, and F20Hp) encoded by the cloned cDNAs were expressed in Escherichia coli as recombinant proteins with an N-terminal His-tag. All proteins except F20Hp were recovered in the soluble fractions. The recombinant Y69Ap has functional DAAO activity, as it can deaminate neutral and basic d-amino acids, whereas the recombinants C47Ap and F18Ep have functional DASPO activities, as they can deaminate acidic d-amino acids. Additional experiments using purified recombinant proteins revealed that Y69Ap deaminates d-Arg more efficiently than d-Ala and d-Met, and that C47Ap and F18Ep show distinct kinetic properties against d-Asp, d-Glu, and N-methyl-d-Asp. This is the first time that cDNA cloning of invertebrate DAAO and DASPO genes has been reported. In addition, our study reveals for the first time that C. elegans has at least two genes encoding functional DASPOs and one gene encoding DAAO, although it had previously been thought that organisms only bear one copy each of these genes. The two C. elegans DASPOs differ in their substrate specificities and possibly also in their subcellular localization.

[Role of isomerized protein repair enzyme, PIMT, in cellular functions].

Proteins are subject to various types of spontaneous modifications that can disrupt their structures with sometimes adverse affects on biological activity. The formation of L-isoaspartyl (or D-aspartyl) residues, through either the deamidation of asparagine or dehydration of aspartate, is one of the most frequent types of deterioration occurring under physiological conditions. Protein L-isoaspartate/D-aspartate o-methyltransferase (PIMT) is a conserved and ubiquitous enzyme that participates in the repair of various isomerized proteins. PIMT catalyzes the transfer of the methyl group of S-adenosyl-L-methionine onto the alpha-carboxyl group of an L-isoaspartyl (or the beta-carboxyl group of an D-aspartyl) residue, which initiates the conversion of this residue to an L-aspartyl residue. PIMT-deficient mice have been shown to die at a mean age of 42 days from progressive epileptic seizures with grand mal and myoclonus. Although PIMT-deficiency clearly leads to the accumulation of isomerized proteins, it is currently unclear how this causes progressive epilepsy in PIMT-deficient mice. As a first step towards understanding this, we developed a new assay to measure PIMT activity in cell lysates. Additionally, we isolated PIMT knockdown cells from HEK293 cells that were stably transfected with a PIMT small interfering RNA expression vector. PIMT activities were significantly decreased in the PIMT knockdown cells, and analysis of the transfectants revealed that MEK and ERK were hyperactivated after cell stimulation with epidermal growth factor (EGF). These results indicate that the ability to repair L-isoaspartyl-(or D-aspartyl-) containing proteins is important for the maintenance of normal MEK-ERK signaling.

Functions of yeast helicase Ssl2p that are essential for viability are also involved in protection from the toxicity of adriamycin.

We have found that, in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, overexpression of the DNA helicase Ssl2p confers resistance to adriamycin. Ssl2p is involved, as a subunit of the basic transcription factor TFIIH, in the initiation of transcription and in nucleotide-excision repair (NER), and this helicase is essential for the survival of yeast cells. An examination of the relationship between the known functions of Ssl2p and adriamycin resistance indicated that overexpression of Ssl2p caused little or no increase in the rate of RNA synthesis and in NER. The absence of any involvement of NER in adriamycin resistance was supported by the finding that yeast cells that overexpressed the mutant form of Ssl2p that lacked the carboxy-terminal region, which is necessary for NER, remained resistant to adriamycin. When we examined the effects of overexpression in yeast of other mutant forms of Ssl2p with various deletions, we found that, of the 843 amino acids of Ssl2p, the entire amino acid sequence from position 81 to position 750 was necessary for adriamycin resistance. This region is identical to the region of Ssl2p that is necessary for the survival of yeast cells. Although this region contains helicase motifs, the overexpression of other yeast helicases, such as Rad3 and Sgs1, had little or no effect on adriamycin resistance, indicating that a mere increase in the intracellular level of helicases does not result in adriamycin resistance. Our results suggest that the functions of Ssl2p that are essential for yeast survival are also required for protection against adriamycin toxicity.