Hodgkin-Huxley-Katz Prize Lecture: Genetic and pharmacological control of glutamate receptor channel through a highly conserved gating motif.

Glutamate receptors are essential ligand-gated ion channels in the central nervous system that mediate excitatory synaptic transmission in response to the release of glutamate from presynaptic terminals. The structural and biophysical basis underlying the function of these receptors has been studied for decades by a wide range of approaches. However recent structural, pharmacological and genetic studies have provided new insight into the regions of this protein that are critical determinants of receptor function. Lack of variation in specific areas of the protein amino acid sequences in the human population has defined three regions in each receptor subunit that are under selective pressure, which has focused research efforts and driven new hypotheses. In addition, these three closely positioned elements reside near a cavity that is shown by multiple studies to be a likely site of action for allosteric modulators, one of which is currently in use as an FDA-approved anticonvulsant. These structural elements are capable of controlling gating of the pore, and appear to permit some modulators bound within the cavity to also alter permeation properties. This creates a new precedent whereby features of the channel pore can be modulated by exogenous drugs that bind outside the pore. The convergence of structural, genetic, biophysical and pharmacological approaches is a powerful means to gain insight into the complex biological processes defined by neurotransmitter receptor function.

A structurally derived model of subunit-dependent NMDA receptor function.

KEY POINTS: The kinetics of NMDA receptor (NMDAR) signalling are a critical aspect of the physiology of excitatory synaptic transmission in the brain. Here we develop a mechanistic description of NMDAR function based on the receptor tetrameric structure and the principle that each agonist-bound subunit must undergo some rate-limiting conformational change after agonist binding, prior to channel opening. By fitting this mechanism to single channel data using a new MATLAB-based software implementation of maximum likelihood fitting with correction for limited time resolution, rate constants were derived for this mechanism that reflect distinct structural changes and predict the properties of macroscopic and synaptic NMDAR currents. The principles applied here to develop a mechanistic description of the heterotetrameric NMDAR, and the software used in this analysis, can be equally applied to other heterotetrameric glutamate receptors, providing a unifying mechanistic framework to understanding the physiology of glutamate receptor signalling in the brain. ABSTRACT: NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are tetrameric complexes comprising two glycine-binding GluN1 and two glutamate-binding GluN2 subunits. Four GluN2 subunits encoded by different genes can produce up to 10 different di- and triheteromeric receptors. In addition, some neurological patients contain a de novo mutation or inherited rare variant in only one subunit. There is currently no mechanistic framework to describe tetrameric receptor function that can be extended to receptors with two different GluN1 or GluN2 subunits. Here we use the structural features of glutamate receptors to develop a mechanism describing both single channel and macroscopic NMDAR currents. We propose that each agonist-bound subunit undergoes some rate-limiting conformational change after agonist binding, prior to channel opening. We hypothesize that this conformational change occurs within a triad of interactions between a short helix preceding the M1 transmembrane helix, the highly conserved M3 motif encoded by the residues SYTANLAAF, and the linker preceding the M4 transmembrane helix of the adjacent subunit. Molecular dynamics simulations suggest that pre-M1 helix motion is uncorrelated between subunits, which we interpret to suggest independent subunit-specific conformational changes may influence these pre-gating steps. According to this interpretation, these conformational changes are the main determinants of the key kinetic properties of NMDA receptor activation following agonist binding, and so these steps sculpt their physiological role. We show that this structurally derived tetrameric model describes both single channel and macroscopic data, giving a new approach to interpreting functional properties of synaptic NMDARs that provides a logical framework to understanding receptors with non-identical subunits.

Mg2+ block properties of triheteromeric GluN1-GluN2B-GluN2D NMDA receptors on neonatal rat substantia nigra pars compacta dopaminergic neurones.

Native NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are tetrameric channels formed by two GluN1 and two GluN2 subunits. So far, seven NMDARs subunits have been identified and they can form diheteromeric or triheteromeric NMDARs (more than one type of GluN2 subunit). Extracellular Mg(2+) is an important regulator of NMDARs, and particularly the voltage dependence of Mg(2+) block is crucial to the roles of NMDARs in synaptic plasticity and the integration of synaptic activity with neuronal activity. Although the Mg(2+) block properties of diheteromeric NMDARs are fully investigated, properties of triheteromeric NMDARs are still not clear. Our previous data suggested that dopaminergic neurones expressed triheteromeric GluN1-GluN2B-GluN2D NMDARs. Here, using NMDARs in dopaminergic neurones from postnatal day 7 (P7) rats as a model system, we characterize the voltage-dependent Mg(2+) block properties of triheteromeric NMDARs. In control conditions, external Mg(2+) significantly inhibits the whole cell NMDA-evoked current in a voltage-dependent manner with IC50 values of 20.9 µm, 53.3 µm and 173 µm at -90 mV, -70 mV and -50 mV, respectively. When the GluN2B-selective antagonist ifenprodil was applied, the Mg(2+) sensitivity of the residual NMDA-mediated currents (which is mainly carried by GluN1-GluN2B-GluN2D NMDARs) is reduced to IC50 values of 45.9 µm (-90 mV), 104 µm (-70 mV) and 276 µm (-50 mV), suggesting that triheteromeric GluN1-GluN2B-GluN2D NMDARs have less affinity for external Mg(2+) than GluN1-GluN2B receptors. In addition, fitting INMDA-V curves with a trapping Mg(2+) block model shows the triheteromeric GluN1-GluN2B-GluN2D NMDARs have weaker voltage-dependent Mg(2+) block (δ = 0.56) than GluN1-GluN2B NMDARs. Finally, our concentration jump and single channel recordings suggest that GluN1-GluN2B-GluN2D rather than GluN1-GluN2D NMDARs are present. These data provide information relevant to Mg(2+) block characteristics of triheteromeric NMDARs and may help to better understand synaptic plasticity, which is dependent on these triheteromeric NMDARs.

Activity-dependent regulation of NMDA receptors in substantia nigra dopaminergic neurones.

N-Methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are Ca(2+)-permeable glutamate receptors that play a critical role in synaptic plasticity and promoting cell survival. However, overactive NMDARs can trigger cell death signalling pathways and have been implicated in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) pathology in Parkinson's disease. Calcium ion influx through NMDARs recruits Ca(2+)-dependent proteins that can regulate NMDAR activity. The surface density of NMDARs can also be regulated dynamically in response to receptor activity via Ca(2+)-independent mechanisms. We have investigated the activity-dependent regulation of NMDARs in SNc dopaminergic neurones. Repeated whole-cell agonist applications resulted in a decline in the amplitude of NMDAR currents (current run-down) that was use dependent and not readily reversible. Run-down was reduced by increasing intracellular Ca(2+) buffering or by reducing Ca(2+) influx but did not appear to be mediated by the same regulatory proteins that cause Ca(2+)-dependent run-down in hippocampal neurones. The NMDAR current run-down may be mediated in part by a Ca(2+)-independent mechanism, because intracellular dialysis with a dynamin-inhibitory peptide reduced run-down, suggesting a role for clathrin-mediated endocytosis in the regulation of the surface density of receptors. Synaptic NMDARs were also subject to current run-down during repeated low-frequency synaptic stimulation in a Ca(2+)-dependent but dynamin-independent manner. Thus, we report, for the first time, regulation of NMDARs in SNc dopaminergic neurones by changes in intracellular Ca(2+) at both synaptic and extrasynaptic sites and provide evidence for activity-dependent changes in receptor trafficking. These mechanisms may contribute to intracellular Ca(2+) homeostasis in dopaminergic neurones by limiting Ca(2+) influx through the NMDAR.

Wnt7a signaling promotes dendritic spine growth and synaptic strength through Ca²âº/Calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II.

The balance between excitatory and inhibitory synapses is crucial for normal brain function. Wnt proteins stimulate synapse formation by increasing synaptic assembly. However, it is unclear whether Wnt signaling differentially regulates the formation of excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Here, we demonstrate that Wnt7a preferentially stimulates excitatory synapse formation and function. In hippocampal neurons, Wnt7a increases the number of excitatory synapses, whereas inhibitory synapses are unaffected. Wnt7a or postsynaptic expression of Dishevelled-1 (Dvl1), a core Wnt signaling component, increases the frequency and amplitude of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs), but not miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs). Wnt7a increases the density and maturity of dendritic spines, whereas Wnt7a-Dvl1-deficient mice exhibit defects in spine morphogenesis and mossy fiber-CA3 synaptic transmission in the hippocampus. Using a postsynaptic reporter for Ca(2+)/Calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) activity, we demonstrate that Wnt7a rapidly activates CaMKII in spines. Importantly, CaMKII inhibition abolishes the effects of Wnt7a on spine growth and excitatory synaptic strength. These data indicate that Wnt7a signaling is critical to regulate spine growth and synaptic strength through the local activation of CaMKII at dendritic spines. Therefore, aberrant Wnt7a signaling may contribute to neurological disorders in which excitatory signaling is disrupted.

Activation of α7 nicotinic receptors by orthosteric and allosteric agonists: influence on single-channel kinetics and conductance.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are oligomeric transmembrane proteins in which five subunits coassemble to form a central ion channel pore. Conventional agonists, such as acetylcholine (ACh), bind to an orthosteric site, located at subunit interfaces in the extracellular domain. More recently, it has been demonstrated that nAChRs can also be activated by ligands binding to an allosteric transmembrane site. In the case of α7 nAChRs, ACh causes rapid activation and almost complete desensitization. In contrast, allosteric agonists such as 4-(4-bromophenyl)-3a,4,5,9b-tetrahydro-3H-cyclopenta[c] quin oline-8-sulfonamide (4BP-TQS) activate α7 nAChRs more slowly and cause only low levels of apparent desensitization. In the present study, single-channel patch-clamp recording has been used to investigate differences in the mechanism of activation of α7 nAChRs by ACh and 4BP-TQS. The most striking difference between activation by ACh and 4BP-TQS is in single-channel kinetics. In comparison with activation by ACh, single-channel open times and burst lengths are substantially longer (~160-800-fold, respectively), and shut times are shorter (~8-fold) when activated by 4BP-TQS. In addition, coapplication of ACh and 4BP-TQS results in a further increase in single-channel burst lengths. Mean burst lengths seen when the two agonists are coapplied (3099 ± 754 ms) are ~2.5-fold longer than with 4BP-TQS alone and ∼370-fold longer than with ACh alone. Intriguingly, the main single-channel conductance of α7 nAChRs, was significantly larger when activated by 4BP-TQS (100.3 ± 2.4 pS) than when activated by ACh (90.0 ± 2.7 pS), providing evidence that activation by allosteric and orthosteric agonists results in different α7 nAChRs open-channel conformations.

Allosteric antagonist action at triheteromeric NMDA receptors.

NMDA receptors are one subtype of glutamate receptor that play fundamental roles in synaptic physiology and synaptic plasticity in the nervous system, in addition to being implicated in several neurological disorders. It is now established that many NMDA receptors in the nervous system are triheteromeric, composed of two glycine-binding GluN1 subunits and two different glutamate binding GluN2 subunits. The pharmacology of NMDA receptor has become well established since the pioneering work of Watkins and Evans almost half a century ago and has seen a resurgence of interest in the past decade as new subtype-selective allosteric modulators have been discovered. In this article, features specific to allosteric antagonist action at triheteromeric NMDA receptors are reviewed with a focus on understanding the mechanism of action of drugs acting at triheteromeric GluN1/GluN2B/GluN2D receptors. These receptors are of importance in the basal ganglia and in interneurons of the hippocampus and implications for understanding the action of allosteric antagonists at synaptic triheteromeric receptors are considered.

Selective block of adenosine A2A receptors prevents ischaemic-like effects induced by oxygen and glucose deprivation in rat medium spiny neurons.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Ischaemia is known to cause massive neuronal depolarization, termed anoxic depolarization (AD), due to energy failure and loss of membrane ion gradients. The neuromodulator adenosine accumulates extracellularly during ischaemia and activates four metabotropic receptors: A1 , A2A , A2B and A3 . Striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) express high levels of A2A receptors and are particularly vulnerable to ischaemic insults. A2A Receptor blockade reduces acute striatal post-ischaemic damage but the cellular mechanisms involved are still unknown. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: We performed patch-clamp recordings of MSNs in rat striatal slices subjected to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) to investigate the effects of A2A receptor ligands or ion channel blockers on AD and OGD-induced ionic imbalance, measured as a positive shift in Erev of ramp currents. KEY RESULTS: Our data indicate that the A2A receptor antagonist SCH58261 (10 µM) significantly attenuated ionic imbalance and AD appearance in MSNs exposed to OGD. The K+ channel blocker Ba2+ (2 mM) or the Na+ channel blocker tetrodotoxin (1 µM) exacerbated and attenuated, respectively, OGD-induced changes. Spontaneous excitatory post-synaptic current (sEPSC) analysis in MSNs revealed that the A2A receptor agonist CGS21680 (1 µM) prevented OGD-induced decrease of sEPSCs within the first 5 min of the insult, an effect shared by the K+ channel blocker Ba2+ , indicating facilitated glutamate release. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Adenosine, released during striatal OGD, activates A2A receptors that may exacerbate OGD-induced damage through K+ channel inhibition. Our results could help to develop A2A receptor-selective therapeutic tools for the treatment of brain ischaemia.

The contribution of ion channels to shaping macrophage behaviour.

The expanding roles of macrophages in physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms now include normal tissue homeostasis, tissue repair and regeneration, including neuronal tissue; initiation, progression, and resolution of the inflammatory response and a diverse array of anti-microbial activities. Two hallmarks of macrophage activity which appear to be fundamental to their diverse cellular functionalities are cellular plasticity and phenotypic heterogeneity. Macrophage plasticity allows these cells to take on a broad spectrum of differing cellular phenotypes in response to local and possibly previous encountered environmental signals. Cellular plasticity also contributes to tissue- and stimulus-dependent macrophage heterogeneity, which manifests itself as different macrophage phenotypes being found at different tissue locations and/or after different cell stimuli. Together, plasticity and heterogeneity align macrophage phenotypes to their required local cellular functions and prevent inappropriate activation of the cell, which could lead to pathology. To execute the appropriate function, which must be regulated at the qualitative, quantitative, spatial and temporal levels, macrophages constantly monitor intracellular and extracellular parameters to initiate and control the appropriate cell signaling cascades. The sensors and signaling mechanisms which control macrophages are the focus of a considerable amount of research. Ion channels regulate the flow of ions between cellular membranes and are critical to cell signaling mechanisms in a variety of cellular functions. It is therefore surprising that the role of ion channels in the macrophage biology has been relatively overlooked. In this review we provide a summary of ion channel research in macrophages. We begin by giving a narrative-based explanation of the membrane potential and its importance in cell biology. We then report on research implicating different ion channel families in macrophage functions. Finally, we highlight some areas of ion channel research in macrophages which need to be addressed, future possible developments in this field and therapeutic potential.

The Nuclear Envelope as a Regulator of Immune Cell Function.

The traditional view of the nuclear envelope (NE) was that it represented a relatively inert physical barrier within the cell, whose main purpose was to separate the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm. However, recent research suggests that this is far from the case, with new and important cellular functions being attributed to this organelle. In this review we describe research suggesting an important contribution of the NE and its constituents in regulating the functions of cells of the innate and adaptive immune system. One of the standout properties of immune cells is their ability to migrate around the body, allowing them to carry out their physiological/pathophysiology cellular role at the appropriate location. This together with the physiological role of the tissue, changes in tissue matrix composition due to disease and aging, and the activation status of the immune cell, all result in immune cells being subjected to different mechanical forces. We report research which suggests that the NE may be an important sensor/transducer of these mechanical signals and propose that the NE is an integrator of both mechanical and chemical signals, allowing the cells of the innate immune system to precisely regulate gene transcription and functionality. By presenting this overview we hope to stimulate the interests of researchers into this often-overlooked organelle and propose it should join the ranks of mitochondria and phagosome, which are important organelles contributing to immune cell function.

Striatal Synapse Degeneration and Dysfunction Are Reversed by Reactivation of Wnt Signaling.

Synapse degeneration in the striatum has been associated with the early stages of Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases (PD and HD). However, the molecular mechanisms that trigger synaptic dysfunction and loss are not fully understood. Increasing evidence suggests that deficiency in Wnt signaling triggers synapse degeneration in the adult brain and that this pathway is affected in neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we demonstrate that endogenous Wnt signaling is essential for the integrity of a subset of inhibitory synapses on striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs). We found that inducible expression of the specific Wnt antagonist Dickkopf-1 (Dkk1) in the adult striatum leads to the loss of inhibitory synapses on MSNs and affects the synaptic transmission of D2-MSNs. We also discovered that re-activation of the Wnt pathway by turning off Dkk1 expression after substantial loss of synapses resulted in the complete recovery of GABAergic and dopamine synapse number. Our results also show that re-activation of the Wnt pathway leads to a recovery of amphetamine response and motor function. Our studies identify the Wnt signaling pathway as a potential therapeutic target for restoring neuronal circuits after synapse degeneration.

Wnt Signaling Through Nitric Oxide Synthase Promotes the Formation of Multi-Innervated Spines.

Structural plasticity of synapses correlates with changes in synaptic strength. Dynamic modifications in dendritic spine number and size are crucial for long-term potentiation (LTP), the cellular correlate of learning and memory. Recent studies have suggested the generation of multi-innervated spines (MIS), in the form of several excitatory presynaptic inputs onto one spine, are crucial for hippocampal memory storage. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying MIS formation and their contribution to LTP. Using 3D enhanced resolution confocal images, we examined the contribution of Wnt synaptic modulators in MIS formation in the context of LTP. We show that blockage of endogenous Wnts with specific Wnt antagonists supresses the formation of MIS upon chemical LTP induction in cultured hippocampal neurons. Gain- and loss-of-function studies demonstrate that Wnt7a signaling promotes MIS formation through the postsynaptic Wnt scaffold protein Disheveled 1 (Dvl1) by stimulating neuronal nitric oxide (NO) synthase (nNOS). Subsequently, NO activates soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) to increase MIS formation. Consistently, we observed an enhanced frequency and amplitude of excitatory postsynaptic currents. Collectively, our findings identify a unique role for Wnt secreted proteins through nNOS/NO/sGC signaling to modulate MIS formation during LTP.

Dopamine D1 receptor inhibition of NMDA receptor currents mediated by tyrosine kinase-dependent receptor trafficking in neonatal rat striatum.

NMDA receptors are of particular importance in the control of synaptic strength and integration of synaptic activity. Dopamine receptor modulation of NMDA receptors in neonatal striatum may influence the efficacy of synaptic transmission in the cortico-striatal pathway and if so, this modulation will affect the behaviour of the basal ganglia network. Here, we show that in acute brain slices of neonatal (P7) rat striatum the dopamine D1 receptor agonist SKF-82958 significantly decreases NMDA receptor currents in patch-clamp whole-cell recordings. This inhibition is not abolished by application of a G protein inhibitor (GDP-beta-S) or irreversible G protein activator (GTP-gamma-S) suggesting a G protein-independent mechanism. In addition, intracellular application of protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors (lavendustin A or PP2) abolished D1 inhibition of NMDA currents. In contrast, in older animals (P28) D1 receptor activation produces a potentiation of the NMDA response which suggests there is a developmental switch in D1 modulation of striatal NMDA receptors. Single-channel recordings show that direct D1 receptor inhibition of NMDA receptors cannot be observed in isolated membrane patches. We hypothesize that D1 inhibition in whole-cell recordings from neonatal rats may be mediated by a change in NMDA receptor trafficking. Consistent with this hypothesis, intracellular application of a dynamin inhibitory peptide (QVPSRPNRAP) abolished D1 inhibition of NMDA receptor currents. We therefore conclude that a tyrosine kinase-dependent alteration of NMDA receptor trafficking underlies D1 dopamine receptor-mediated down-regulation of NMDA receptor currents in medium spiny neurons of neonatal rat striatum.

Host-cell specific effects of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor chaperone RIC-3 revealed by a comparison of human and Drosophila RIC-3 homologues.

RIC-3 is a transmembrane protein which enhances maturation (folding and assembly) of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). In this study, we report the cloning and characterisation of 11 alternatively spliced isoforms of Drosophila melanogaster RIC-3 (DmRIC-3). Heterologous expression studies of alternatively spliced DmRIC-3 isoforms demonstrate that nAChR chaperone activity does not require a predicted coiled-coil domain which is located entirely within exon 7. In contrast, isoforms containing an additional exon (exon 2), which is located within a proline-rich N-terminal region, have a greatly reduced ability to enhance nAChR maturation. The ability of DmRIC-3 to influence nAChR maturation was examined in co-expression studies with human alpha7 nAChRs and with hybrid nAChRs containing both Drosophila and rat nAChR subunits. When expressed in a Drosophila cell line, several of the DmRIC-3 splice variants enhanced nAChR maturation to a significantly greater extent than observed with human RIC-3. In contrast, when expressed in a human cell line, human RIC-3 enhanced nAChR maturation more efficiently than DmRIC-3. The cloning and characterisation of 11 alternatively spliced DmRIC-3 isoforms has helped to identify domains influencing RIC-3 chaperone activity. In addition, studies conducted in different expression systems suggest that additional host cell factors may modulate the chaperone activity of RIC-3.

Structure, function, and allosteric modulation of NMDA receptors.

NMDA-type glutamate receptors are ligand-gated ion channels that mediate a Ca2+-permeable component of excitatory neurotransmission in the central nervous system (CNS). They are expressed throughout the CNS and play key physiological roles in synaptic function, such as synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. NMDA receptors are also implicated in the pathophysiology of several CNS disorders and more recently have been identified as a locus for disease-associated genomic variation. NMDA receptors exist as a diverse array of subtypes formed by variation in assembly of seven subunits (GluN1, GluN2A-D, and GluN3A-B) into tetrameric receptor complexes. These NMDA receptor subtypes show unique structural features that account for their distinct functional and pharmacological properties allowing precise tuning of their physiological roles. Here, we review the relationship between NMDA receptor structure and function with an emphasis on emerging atomic resolution structures, which begin to explain unique features of this receptor.

Direct effects of calmodulin on NMDA receptor single-channel gating in rat hippocampal granule cells.

NMDA receptors are glutamate-sensitive ion channel receptors that mediate excitatory synaptic transmission and are widely implicated in synaptic plasticity and integration of synaptic activity in the CNS. This is in part attributable to the high calcium permeability of the ion channel, which allows receptor activation to influence the intracellular calcium concentration and also the slow time course of NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic currents. NMDA receptor activity is also regulated by the intracellular calcium concentration through activation of various calcium-dependent proteins, including calmodulin, calcineurin, protein kinase C, and alpha-actinin-2. Here, we have shown that calmodulin reduces the duration of native NMDA receptor single-channel openings from 3.5 +/- 0.6 msec to 1.71 +/- 0.2 msec in agreement with previous studies on recombinant NMDA receptors (Ehlers et al., 1996). NMDA receptor single-channel amplitudes and shut times were not affected. However, calmodulin reduced the duration of groups of channel openings called superclusters, which determine the slow time course of synaptic currents, from 121 +/- 25.4 msec to 60.4 +/- 11.6 msec. In addition, total open time, number of channel openings, and charge transfer per supercluster were all reduced by calmodulin. A 68% decrease in charge transfer per supercluster suggests that calmodulin activation will significantly reduce calcium influx during synaptic transmission. These results suggest that calmodulin-dependent inhibition of NMDA receptors will reduce the amplitude and time course of excitatory synaptic currents and thus affect synaptic plasticity and integration of synaptic activity in the CNS.

Absence of Whisker-related pattern formation in mice with NMDA receptors lacking coincidence detection properties and calcium signaling.

Precise refinement of synaptic connectivity is the result of activity-dependent mechanisms in which coincidence-dependent calcium signaling by NMDA receptors (NMDARs) under control of the voltage-dependent Mg2+ block might play a special role. In the developing rodent trigeminal system, the pattern of synaptic connections between whisker-specific inputs and their target cells in the brainstem is refined to form functionally and morphologically distinct units (barrelettes). To test the role of NMDA receptor signaling in this process, we introduced the N598R mutation into the native NR1 gene. This leads to the expression of functional NMDARs that are Mg2+ insensitive and Ca2+ impermeable. Newborn mice expressing exclusively NR1 N598R-containing NMDARs do not show any whisker-related patterning in the brainstem, whereas the topographic projection of trigeminal afferents and gross brain morphology appear normal. Furthermore, the NR1 N598R mutation does not affect expression levels of NMDAR subunits and other important neurotransmitter receptors. Our results show that coincidence detection by, and/or Ca2+ permeability of, NMDARs is necessary for the development of somatotopic maps in the brainstem and suggest that highly specific signaling underlies synaptic refinement.

Inhibitory interactions of calcineurin (phosphatase 2B) and calmodulin on rat hippocampal NMDA receptors.

Calcineurin, protein phosphatase 2B, is a calcium-binding protein that has been shown to modulate NMDA receptor activity (Regulation of NMDA channel function by endogenous Ca(2+)-dependent phosphatase. Nature 369 (1994) 235; Regulation of glycine-insensitive desensitisation of the NMDA receptor in outside-out patches. J. Neurophysiol. 71 (1994) 754; Calcineurin acts via the C-terminus of NR2A to modulate desensitization of NMDA receptors. Neuropharmacology 42 (2002) 593) and synaptic transmission (Synaptic desensitization of NMDA receptors by calcineurin. Science 267 (1995) 1510; beta-adrenergic regulation of synaptic NMDA receptors by cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Neuron 16 (1996) 415). Calmodulin, a necessary co-factor for calcineurin (Calmodulin binding by calcineurin. J. Biol. Chem. 262 (1987) 15062), has also been shown to inhibit NMDA receptor activity (Inactivation of NMDA receptors by direct interaction of calmodulin with the NR1 subunit. Cell 84 (1996) 745; Direct effects of calmodulin on NMDA receptor single-channel gating in rat hippocampal granule cells. J. Neurosci. 22 (2002) 8860) in a calcium dependent manner (Calmodulin mediates calcium-dependent inactivation of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors. Neuron 21 (1998) 443; Interactions of calmodulin and alpha-actinin with the NR1 subunit modulate calcium-dependent inactivation of NMDA receptors. J. Neurosci. 19 (1999) 1165). In order to gain insight into the likely actions and interactions of calcineurin and calmodulin at excitatory synapses, we have investigated the effects of these two proteins on single NMDA receptor channel activity. Calcineurin and calmodulin are both known to reduce channel open time (Regulation of NMDA channel function by endogenous Ca(2+)-dependent phosphatase. Nature 369 (1994) 235; Inactivation of NMDA receptors by direct interaction of calmodulin with the NR1 subunit. Cell 84 (1996) 745), and the duration of receptor activations or superclusters. They are, therefore, predicted to shorten the synaptic current decay (Regulation of NMDA channel function by endogenous Ca(2+)-dependent phosphatase. Nature 369 (1994) 235; Direct effects of calmodulin on NMDA receptor single-channel gating in rat hippocampal granule cells. J. Neurosci. 22 (2002) 8860). In agreement with Lieberman and Mody (Regulation of NMDA channel function by endogenous Ca(2+)-dependent phosphatase. Nature 369 (1994) 235), the results of this study indicate calcineurin plus calmodulin reduces channel open time. However, this effect is not as pronounced as that observed in the presence of calmodulin alone. Calcineurin plus calmodulin was also found to increase single channel shut time. We conclude that in addition to its direct effects on single channel activity, calcineurin regulates the effects of calmodulin on NMDA receptor activity.