The intersection between alexithymia, testosterone reactivity, and coparenting in fathers predicts child's prosocial behavior.

The development of prosocial skills in children is a key predictor of long-term social, cognitive, and emotional functioning. However, the role of fathers' psychological characteristics in fostering prosocial development, including during the prenatal period, and the mechanisms underlying their influence, remain relatively unexplored. This study aimed to examine whether a higher tendency of alexithymia, a difficulty to identify and verbalize emotions, in expectant fathers predicts prosocial behavior of two-year-old toddlers through the quality of coparenting and whether greater testosterone increase during a stressful parenting task moderates this indirect effect. A sample of 105 couples and their children was tracked longitudinally starting from the third trimester of pregnancy (T1), at three months (T2), and at two years postnatally (T3). Using self-report questionnaires, fathers reported on alexithymia (T1) and mothers and fathers reported on coparenting quality (T2). Additionally, fathers provided saliva samples before and after engaging in a stressful parenting task (the Inconsolable Doll Task) to measure testosterone reactivity (T1). Children's prosocial behavior was observed during an out-of-reach task (T3). A moderated mediation analysis using structural equation modeling showed that higher levels of alexithymia pre-birth predicted lower coparenting quality three months after birth, which in turn predicted lower prosocial behavior of two-year-old children, but only among fathers with mean or high testosterone increases. This study illuminates a potential mechanism by which fathers' alexithymia and testosterone reactivity forecast their toddlers' prosocial behavior.

Salivary and Serum Analytes and Their Associations with Self-rated Health Among Healthy Young Adults.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the biological processes underlying poor self-rated health (SRH) can inform prevention efforts. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of using self-reported measures and self-collected biospecimens, such as saliva, to understand physiological functioning and assist with health surveillance and promotion. However, the associations between salivary analytes and SRH remain understudied. The current study addresses this gap. METHODS: In a laboratory-based study, 99 healthy adults (Mage = 23.8 years, SD = 4.5, 55% men, 43% non-Hispanic White) reported their SRH and provided saliva and blood samples that were assayed for adiponectin, C-reactive protein (CRP), uric acid (UA), and cytokines (IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α). Principal component analyses assessed the component loadings and generated factor scores for saliva and serum analytes. Binary logistic regressions examined the associations between these components and poor SRH. RESULTS: Salivary analytes loaded onto two components (component 1: adiponectin and cytokines; component 2: CRP and UA) explaining 58% of the variance. Serum analytes grouped onto three components (component 1: IL-8 and TNF-α; component 2: CRP, IL-1ß, and IL-6; component 3: adiponectin and UA) explaining 76% of the variance. Higher salivary component 1 scores predicted higher odds of reporting poor SRH (OR 1.53, 95%CI [1.10, 2.11]). Higher serum component 2 scores predicted higher odds of reporting poor SRH (OR 2.37, 95%CI [1.20, 4.67]). When examined in the same model, salivary component 1 (OR 1.79, 95%CI [1.17, 2.75]) and serum component 2 were associated with poorer SRH (OR 7.74, 95%CI [2.18, 27.40]). CONCLUSIONS: In our sample, whether measured in saliva or serum, indices of inflammatory processes were associated with SRH.

Increased risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adolescents with high salivary levels of copper, manganese, and zinc.

Exposure to toxic heavy metals has been associated with the development of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, fewer studies have examined the associations between abnormal levels of essential trace metals and ADHD, and none have done so using saliva. We investigated whether salivary metals were associated with ADHD in adolescents aged 12 from the Family Life Project (FLP) using a nested case-control study design that included 110 adolescents who met diagnostic criteria for inattentive (ADHD-I), hyperactive-impulsive (ADHD-H), or combined type ADHD (ADHD-C) (cases) and 173 children who did not (controls). We used inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrophotometry to measure chromium, copper, manganese, and zinc in saliva samples. We employed logistic regression models to examine associations between quartile levels of individual metals and ADHD outcomes by subtype. Salivary copper levels were significantly associated with increased odds of any ADHD diagnosis (OR = 3.31, 95% CI: 1.08-10.12; p = 0.04) and with increased odds of ADHD-C diagnosis (OR = 8.44, 95% CI: 1.58-45.12; p = 0.01). Salivary zinc levels were significantly associated with increased odds of ADHD-C diagnosis (OR = 4.06, 95% CI: 1.21-13.69; p = 0.02). Salivary manganese levels were also significantly associated with increased odds of ADHD-C diagnosis (OR = 5.43, 95% CI: 1.08-27.27, p = 0.04). This is the first study using saliva to assess metal exposure and provide a potential link between salivary levels of copper, manganese, and zinc and ADHD diagnoses in adolescents. Public health interventions focused on metal exposures might reduce ADHD incidence in low-income, minority communities.

Rapid Detection of Lithium Concentrations in Oral Fluid.

BACKGROUND: Lithium medication is considered to be the first-line treatment for bipolar disorder as a monotherapy, and for treatment-resistant depression with lithium augmentation. However, because of potential toxicity, lithium levels must be monitored frequently. Recent studies have demonstrated a significant correlation between lithium levels measured in serum and those detected in oral fluid, suggesting that oral fluid analysis may represent an easy, noninvasive means to monitor lithium levels. The aim of this study was to evaluate the analytical performance of rapid assays for lithium measurements in oral fluid. METHODS: Levels of lithium in oral fluid from psychiatric patients (n = 108 in total) taking lithium medications were quantified using 2 rapid techniques: an automated clinical chemistry analyzer and a novel, commercially available colorimetric lithium assay. These results were compared with those obtained using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). RESULTS: The mean and median oral fluid lithium levels in this cohort were 1.43-1.61 mM and 1.32-1.52 mM, respectively, depending on the method, with the overall range, across all methods, being 0.213-4.42 mM. Linear regression analysis showed excellent agreement between the oral fluid values measured using ICP-OES and the colorimetric method (r 2 value = 0.926; P < 0.0001; slope = 1.084 ± 0.038). Similarly, excellent agreement was observed between ICP-OES and the automated method (r 2 = 0.872; P < 0.0001; slope = 1.019 ± 0.057). CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that lithium levels in oral fluid can be rapidly and reliably quantified using colorimetric approaches. These findings may facilitate the development of point-of-care lithium monitoring systems for use in oral fluid.

Associations between saliva and plasma cytokines in cognitively normal, older adults.

BACKGROUND: Inflammatory responses play key roles in the development and progression of many pathological conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases. Accurate quantification of inflammatory factors in saliva would be highly advantageous, given its convenience and non-invasive nature, especially in elderly populations. METHODS: In this study, we measured levels of 10 cytokines, and the pro-inflammatory factor, YKL-40, in plasma and saliva samples from a cohort of nondemented older adults (n = 71; 62% female; 70.3 ± 6.4 years) using sensitive electrochemiluminescence-based immunoassays. RESULTS: We found that the mean levels of all cytokines were higher in saliva compared to plasma and that strong sex differences were observed for both saliva and plasma cytokines in this population. Comparing each cytokine between the two biofluids, we found that levels of interferon-gamma (IFNγ), interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) in blood were significantly correlated with their respective levels in saliva. We further observed that levels of these cytokines in blood were significantly correlated with additional cytokines in saliva, including IL-1ß, IL-10, IL-8, IL12p70 and IL-13. CONCLUSIONS: These findings show that inflammatory markers in saliva are associated with those found in circulation, suggesting shared inflammatory mechanisms between these two fluids. The higher levels of cytokines measured in saliva suggest that it might represent a better peripheral fluid to gauge inflammatory processes. Finally, our findings of robust sex differences in several salivary cytokines could have important implications for their potential use as disease biomarkers in the elderly and might be related to sex differences in the prevalence of age-related conditions.

Blast-Induced Neurotrauma Results in Spatially Distinct Gray Matter Alteration Alongside Hormonal Alteration: A Preliminary Investigation.

Blast-induced neurotrauma (BINT) frequently occurs during military training and deployment and has been linked to long-term neuropsychological and neurocognitive changes, and changes in brain structure. As military personnel experience frequent exposures to stress, BINT may negatively influence stress coping abilities. This study aimed to determine the effects of BINT on gray matter volume and hormonal alteration. Participants were Canadian Armed Forces personnel and veterans with a history of BINT (n = 12), and first responder controls (n = 8), recruited due to their characteristic occupational stress professions. Whole saliva was collected via passive drool on the morning of testing and analyzed for testosterone (pg/mL), cortisol (µg/dL), and testosterone/cortisol (T/C) ratio. Voxel-based morphometry was performed to compare gray matter (GM) volume, alongside measurement of cortical thickness and subcortical volumes. Saliva analyses revealed distinct alterations following BINT, with significantly elevated testosterone and T/C ratio. Widespread and largely symmetric loci of reduced GM were found specific to BINT, particularly in the temporal gyrus, precuneus, and thalamus. These findings suggest that BINT affects hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and -gonadal axis function, and causes anatomically-specific GM loss, which were not observed in a comparator group with similar occupational stressors. These findings support BINT as a unique injury with distinct structural and endocrine consequences.

DNA methylation in former extremely low birth weight newborns: association with cardiovascular and endocrine function.

BACKGROUND: There is increased risk of cardiovascular, metabolic, and hypertensive disorders in later life in the preterm population. We studied school-age children who had been born extremely premature who had undergone endocrine, cardiovascular, and anthropometric evaluations. METHODS: School age measurements of salivary cortisol, adrenal androgens, blood pressure, and anthropometric markers were correlated with DNA methylation of 11-betahydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11BHSD2), leptin, and the LINE1 repetitive DNA element. RESULTS: We observed a modest correlation between log AUC for salivary cortisol and methylation of leptin in preterm infants and a negative correlation between methylation of region 1 of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR in term-born infants. There was an association between LINE1 methylation and cortisol response to awakening and a negative correlation between LINE1 and systolic blood pressure at 6-7 years. Methylation of the GR promoter region showed a positive association with systolic blood pressure at 6-7 years of age. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that extremely preterm birth, followed by complex patterns of endocrine, cardiovascular, and metabolic exposures during early postnatal life, is associated with lasting changes in DNA methylation patterns in genes involved in hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis function, adrenal hormonal regulation, and cardiometabolic risk. IMPACT: Preterm infants have significant environmental and physiological exposures during early life that may have lasting impact on later function. Alterations in hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis (HPA) function have been associated with these exposures. We examined the associated changes in DNA methylation of important genes involved in HPA function, metabolism, and global DNA methylation. The changes we saw in DNA methylation may help to explain associated cardiovascular, metabolic, and growth disturbance in these children in later life.

Cognitive behavioral therapy versus general health education for family caregivers of individuals with heart failure: a pilot randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: While support from family caregivers is essential in the care of patients with heart failure (HF), caregiving places a considerable burden on family caregivers. We examined the preliminary effects of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for caregivers of individuals with HF. METHODS: In this pilot randomized controlled trial, patients with HF and their primary family caregivers (30 dyads) were randomized into CBT (n = 15) or general health education (GHE, n = 15) groups. Caregivers received 8 weekly individual sessions of either CBT (intervention) or GHE (attention control condition). Caregivers completed questionnaires at baseline, post-intervention, and 6 months. Saliva samples collected from caregivers at baseline and post-intervention were analyzed for salivary cortisol. The cortisol awakening response (CAR) and area under the curve (AUC) were calculated using log-transformed cortisol values. We analyzed data from 26 (14 receiving CBT and 12 receiving GHE) caregivers who received at least one session of CBT or GHE (modified intention-to treat) using linear mixed models. Each model included time, study group, and time-by-study group interaction as fixed effects. RESULTS: Patients were older (66.94 ± 14.01 years) than caregivers (55.09 ± 15.24 years), and 54% of patients and 54% of caregivers were female. Most caregivers (58%) were spouses. A total of 14 (93%) CBT and 12 (80%) GHE participants received at least 1 session (p = .60), and 11 (73%) CBT and 11 (73%) GHE participants completed all 8 sessions (p = 1.00). There were no significant between-group differences in change for salivary cortisol or psychological outcomes. However, the CBT group had significant within-group improvements in perceived stress (p = .011), stress symptoms (p = .017), depression (p = .002), and anxiety (p = .006) from baseline to post-intervention, while the control group had no significant within-group change in the outcomes except for anxiety (p = .03). The significant improvements observed in the CBT group lasted for 6 months. No adverse effects were observed. CONCLUSIONS: In this pilot trial, although between-group differences in change were not significant, CBT resulted in significant improvements in some psychological outcomes with no improvement in the control group. Our findings suggest the potential of the intervention to alleviate psychological distress in HF caregivers. Further examination in larger randomized trials is warranted. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01937936 (Registered on 10/09/2013).

Best practice recommendations for the measurement and interpretation of salivary proinflammatory cytokines in biobehavioral research.

Despite the integration of salivary inflammatory cytokines into research across the biobehavioral, psychological, clinical, and health-related disciplines, there is little guidance regarding the biospecimen collection, handling, and storage practices that maximize the quality and validity of salivary cytokine data. Furthermore, associations between salivary cytokines and measures related to oral health are rarely assessed and accounted for in studies outside the oral health fields. To address these gaps, we examine the sensitivity of salivary interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) to changes in saliva sample collection technique and cold chain management procedures. Using subsets of saliva samples collected from 150 healthy adults, we measure salivary IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, and other oral health-related indices (i.e., blood contamination [transferrin], and salivary matrixmallotprotienase-8). In addition to examining changes in cytokine levels associated with sample collection technique and cold chain management procedures, we assess relations between cytokine concentrations and levels of other oral health-related measures. We found that IL-1ß, IL-6, and IL-8 were more robust to changes in sample collection and cold chain management procedures than TNF-α, and all cytokines were positively associated with other oral health-related measures. Based on our findings, we recommend analyte-specific guidance for measuring and interpreting salivary cytokine concentrations.

Saliva testing as a means to monitor therapeutic lithium levels in patients with psychiatric disorders: Identification of clinical and environmental covariates, and their incorporation into a prediction model.

OBJECTIVE: The narrow therapeutic window of lithium medications necessitates frequent serum monitoring, which can be expensive and inconvenient for the patient. Compared to blood, saliva collection is easier, non-invasive, requires less processing, and can be done without the need for trained personnel. This study investigated the utility of longitudinal salivary lithium level monitoring. METHODS: We measured salivary lithium levels using ICP-OES in n = 169 passive drool samples, collected both as single observations and longitudinally for up to 18 months, from a multi-center cohort of n = 75 patients with bipolar disorder or other psychiatric conditions. RESULTS: Saliva and serum lithium levels were highly correlated. Adjustment for daily lithium dose, diabetes, and smoking improved this relationship (r = 0.77). Using the adjusted intersubject equation and a patient's salivary lithium value, we observed a strong correlation between the predicted vs. observed serum lithium levels (r = 0.70). Most patients had highly stable saliva/serum ratios across multiple visits, with longitudinal variability significantly greater with age. Use of the intrasubject saliva/serum ratio from a single prior observation had similar predictive power to the use of the adjusted intersubject equation. However, the use of the mean intrasubject ratio from three prior observations could robustly predict serum lithium levels (predicted vs. observed r = 0.90). CONCLUSIONS: These findings strongly suggest that saliva could be used for lithium monitoring, and open the door for the development and implementation of a point-of-care salivary lithium device for use at home or the clinic. We propose that the use of saliva will dramatically improve treatment opportunities for patients with mood disorders.

Residential Greenness Positively Associated with the Cortisol to DHEA Ratio among Urban-Dwelling African American Women at Risk for HIV.

As ecosystems that support human health, societies, and civilization change in the era of the Anthropocene, individuals with disproportionate balance of salivary hormones may be at greatest risk of morbidity and mortality. Vulnerable communities, in particular, are overburdened by inequities in features of built environments linked to health disparities. This study examined the cross-sectional association of greenness in the built environment with the ratio of cortisol to dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in an urban-dwelling high-risk community sample of African American women (n = 84, age 18-44 years). Saliva samples, collected across 2 consecutive days, were assayed for cortisol and DHEA. Controlling for sexual violence, perceived stress, education, and income, as well as crime, traffic density, and vacant properties, we observed a significant positive cross-sectional association between greenness and the cortisol to DHEA ratio, (ß = 7·5, 95% CI: 0.89, 14.19). The findings highlight environmental influence on stress response at waking when there is the greatest individual variation. Implications for advancing our understanding of the waking ratio of cortisol to DHEA as a potential marker of physiological resilience are discussed.

COVID-19 Serology at Population Scale: SARS-CoV-2-Specific Antibody Responses in Saliva.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the cause of an ongoing pandemic that has infected over 36 million and killed over 1 million people. Informed implementation of government public health policies depends on accurate data on SARS-CoV-2 immunity at a population scale. We hypothesized that detection of SARS-CoV-2 salivary antibodies could serve as a noninvasive alternative to serological testing for monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 infection and seropositivity at a population scale. We developed a multiplex SARS-CoV-2 antibody immunoassay based on Luminex technology that comprised 12 CoV antigens, mostly derived from SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid (N) and spike (S). Saliva and sera collected from confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases and from the pre-COVID-19 era were tested for IgG, IgA, and IgM to the antigen panel. Matched saliva and serum IgG responses (n = 28) were significantly correlated. The salivary anti-N IgG response resulted in the highest sensitivity (100%), exhibiting a positive response in 24/24 reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR)-confirmed COVID-19 cases sampled at >14 days post-symptom onset (DPSO), whereas the salivary anti-receptor binding domain (RBD) IgG response yielded 100% specificity. Temporal kinetics of IgG in saliva were consistent with those observed in blood and indicated that most individuals seroconvert at around 10 DPSO. Algorithms employing a combination of the IgG responses to N and S antigens result in high diagnostic accuracy (100%) by as early as 10 DPSO. These results support the use of saliva-based antibody testing as a noninvasive and scalable alternative to blood-based antibody testing.

Salivary Bioscience and the Future of Behavioral Medicine.

Behavioral medicine research from across the globe has been catalyzed by the quest to understand the interactions between psychological, social, and physiological factors underlying disparities in human health. A more complete biopsychosocial model increasingly integrates advanced clinical and laboratory assessments of relevant environmental chemicals, biological mediators of inflammation, cardiometabolic and endocrine markers, infectious disease exposure, and genetic polymorphisms determined from saliva specimens. The overarching aims are to identify mechanisms, decode moderating processes that translate adversity into risk, and verify the impact of clinical intervention. This special issue of the International Journal of Behavioral Medicine highlights novel contributions of salivary bioscience with emphasis on research utilizing varied research designs (i.e., experimental, longitudinal, dyadic), incorporating a broad array of salivary analytes, and investigating the influence of psychological and social factors on human health.

Long-Term Associations Between Prenatal Maternal Cortisol and Child Neuroendocrine-Immune Regulation.

BACKGROUND: Advancing understanding of the developmental origins of neuroendocrine-immune (NEI) functioning is key to elucidating the biological mechanisms involved in health and disease risk across the lifespan. This study examined whether prenatal maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) activity moderates child NEI relations and explored the consistency of this moderating effect across gestation. METHODS: Pregnant women participated in five prenatal study visits from 24 to 38 weeks gestation. At each visit, women provided a saliva sample. In a 5-year follow-up study, children (nfemale = 25, nmale=20) provided four saliva samples and participated in behavioral assessments and challenge tasks. Prenatal maternal saliva samples were assayed for cortisol. Child saliva samples were assayed for cortisol and cytokines (IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, TNFα) as indices of HPA and inflammatory activity. Multilevel mixed-effects models examined the moderation of child NEI relations by prenatal maternal cortisol. RESULTS: Among males, average prenatal maternal cortisol did not moderate child NEI relations. Among females, average prenatal maternal cortisol moderated some child NEI relations with higher prenatal cortisol associated with more positive cortisol-cytokine relations at age five. When examined by gestational time point, there were more significant NEI moderation effects by maternal cortisol from later gestation (≥ 30 weeks) than earlier. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest prenatal maternal HPA activity may moderate child NEI functioning. Additional research conducted with more heterogeneous and larger samples is needed to fully understand these relations. Furthering our knowledge of NEI development has important research and clinical implications, particularly for understanding and addressing conditions with inflammatory pathophysiologies, such as depression and cardiovascular disease.

Prenatal Tobacco and Cannabis Exposure: Associations with Cortisol Reactivity in Early School Age Children.

BACKGROUND: The study examined the association between prenatal tobacco or co-exposure to tobacco and cannabis and children's cortisol reactivity at kindergarten age and the role of child sex, maternal negative mood (depression/perceived stress), and parenting behavior during play interactions as moderators of this association. METHODS: The sample was 238 mother-child dyads (67 tobacco users, 83 co-users of tobacco and cannabis, and 88 non-users). Data used were obtained from pregnancy assessments and six postnatal assessments at 2, 9, 16, 24, and 36 months and kindergarten age. Infant cortisol was measured in response to two laboratory stress paradigms. RESULTS: Co-exposed children had a significantly greater decrease from pre-stressor to post-stressor and overall lower cortisol response compared with non-exposed children. This association was moderated by maternal harshness during play interactions across early childhood. Co-exposed children had flatter cortisol responses regardless of the mother's level of harshness or stress/depression. However, non-exposed children who experienced low harshness had the normative cortisol peak 20 min post-stressor, while non-exposed children with high maternal harshness had a flatter cortisol pattern. Similarly, non-exposed children with more depressed/stressed mothers had higher pre-stressor cortisol levels, while those who experienced low maternal depression/stress had lower pre-stressor cortisol but peaked post-stress. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that prenatal polysubstance exposure is associated with greater risk for lower cortisol response in children and highlight the role of parenting behavior for non-exposed but not the co-exposed children.

Feasibility and acceptability of intensive, real-time biobehavioral data collection using ecological momentary assessment, salivary biomarkers, and accelerometers among middle-aged African Americans.

Perceived racial discrimination is linked to unhealthy behaviors and stress-related morbidities. A compelling body of research indicates that perceived racial discrimination may contribute to health disparities among African Americans (AAs). The purposes of this study were to describe the study protocol including data collection procedures and study measures and to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of intensive biobehavioral data collection using ecological momentary assessment (EMA), salivary biomarkers, and accelerometers over 7 days among middle-aged AAs with a goal of understanding the relationships between perceived racial discrimination and biobehavioral responses to stress. Twelve AA men and women participated in the feasibility/acceptability study. They completed surveys, anthropometrics, and received in-person training in EMA and saliva sample collection at baseline. Participants were asked to respond to the random prompt text message-based EMA five times a day, wear an accelerometer daily for 7 days, and to self-collect saliva samples four times a day for 4 consecutive days. The EMA surveys included perceived racial discrimination, affective states, lifestyle behaviors, and social and physical contexts. The mean EMA response rate was 82.8%. All participants collected saliva samples four times a day for 4 consecutive days. About 83% of participants wore the accelerometer on the hip 6 out of 7 days. Despite the perception that the intensive nature of assessments would result in high participant burden, the acceptability of the study procedures was uniformly favorable.

Levels of Interleukin-6 in Saliva, but Not Plasma, Correlate with Clinical Metrics in Huntington's Disease Patients and Healthy Control Subjects.

Growing evidence suggests that inflammatory responses, in both the brain and peripheral tissues, contribute to disease pathology in Huntington's disease (HD), an inherited, progressive neurodegenerative disorder typically affecting adults in their 30-40 s. Hence, studies of inflammation-related markers in peripheral fluids might be useful to better characterize disease features. In this study, we measured levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1B), and alpha-amylase (AA) in saliva and plasma from n = 125 subjects, including n = 37 manifest HD patients, n = 36 premanifest patients, and n = 52 healthy controls, using immunoassays. We found increases in salivary levels of IL-6, IL-1B and CRP across different disease groups and increased levels of IL-6 in the plasma of HD patients as compared to premanifest patients and controls. The levels of salivary IL-6 were significantly correlated with each of the other salivary markers, as well as with IL-6 levels measured in plasma. Further, salivary IL-6 and IL-1B levels were significantly positively correlated with Total Motor Score (TMS) and chorea scores and negatively correlated with Total Functional Capacity (TFC) in HD patients, whereby in healthy control subjects, IL-6 was significantly negatively correlated with Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and the Symbol Digit Modalities test (SDM). Interestingly, the plasma levels of IL-6 did not show similar correlations to any clinical measures in either HD or control subjects. These findings suggest that salivary IL-6 is particularly relevant as a potential non-invasive biomarker for HD symptoms. The advent of an effective, dependable salivary biomarker would meet the urgent need for a less invasive means of identifying and monitoring HD disease progression.

Overestimating Self-Blame for Stressful Life Events and Adolescents' Latent Trait Cortisol: The Moderating Role of Parental Warmth.

Cognitive interpretations of stressful events impact their implications for physiological stress processes. However, whether such interpretations are related to trait cortisol-an indicator of individual differences in stress physiology-is unknown. In 112 early adolescent girls (M age = 12.39 years), this study examined the association between self-blame estimates for past year events and latent trait cortisol, and whether maternal warmth moderated effects. Overestimating self-blame (versus objective indices) for independent (uncontrollable) events was associated with lower latent trait cortisol, and maternal warmth moderated the effect of self-blame estimates on latent trait cortisol for each dependent (at least partially controllable) and interpersonal events. Implications for understanding the impact of cognitive and interpersonal factors on trait cortisol during early adolescence are discussed.

The impact of in-person and video-recorded animal experiences on zoo visitors' cognition, affect, empathic concern, and conservation intent.

Currently there are mixed results regarding the ability for media or more specifically video to increase a person's interest in conservation. However, there is a growing amount of evidence that in-person experiences at a zoo or aquarium can increase a person's interest in conservation. The goal of the current study was to examine the difference between an in-person experience viewing a polar bear training session and watching a video of the same experience on cognition, emotion, empathic concern, and conservation intent. A total of 124 Brookfield Zoo members were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. Condition 1 was an in-person 10 min (Live Animal) experience viewing a training session with a polar bear. Condition 2 participants (Video Animal) watched a video of the same experience from Condition 1 and Condition 3 (Control) listened to the audio from Condition 1 but only viewed an image of one of our animal care specialists. Results suggest that the live condition is associated with higher probability of answering questions correctly, having a positive emotional experience, having greater empathic concern for wild bears, and wanting to get involved in conservation when compared to the control. These impacts were not observed for the video condition suggesting that for this study, watching a video of a training session was not an effective tool for getting people involved in conservation. Future research is needed to better understand this important topic, but we now have further evidence of the importance of in-person zoo experiences.

Minimally Invasive Saliva Testing to Monitor Norovirus Infection in Community Settings.

BACKGROUND: Norovirus is a leading cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Routine norovirus diagnosis requires stool collection. The goal of this study was to develop and validate a noninvasive method to diagnose norovirus to complement stool diagnostics and to facilitate studies on transmission. METHODS: A multiplex immunoassay to measure salivary immunoglobulin G (IgG) responses to 5 common norovirus genotypes (GI.1, GII.2, GII.4, GII.6, and GII.17) was developed. The assay was validated using acute and convalescent saliva samples collected from Peruvian children <5 years of age with polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-diagnosed norovirus infections (n = 175) and controls (n = 32). The assay sensitivity and specificity were calculated to determine infection status based on fold rise of salivary norovirus genotype-specific IgG using norovirus genotype from stool as reference. RESULTS: The salivary assay detected recent norovirus infections and correctly assigned the infecting genotype. Sensitivity was 71% and specificity was 96% across the evaluated genotypes compared to PCR-diagnosed norovirus infection. CONCLUSIONS: This saliva-based assay will be a useful tool to monitor norovirus transmission in high-risk settings such as daycare centers or hospitals. Cross-reactivity is limited between the tested genotypes, which represent the most commonly circulating genotypes.