Drosophila TG-A transglutaminase is secreted via an unconventional Golgi-independent mechanism involving exosomes and two types of fatty acylations.

Transglutaminases (TGs) play essential intracellular and extracellular roles by covalently cross-linking many proteins. Drosophila TG is encoded by one gene and has two alternative splicing-derived isoforms, TG-A and TG-B, which contain distinct N-terminal 46- and 38-amino acid sequences, respectively. The TGs identified to date do not have a typical endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-signal peptide, and the molecular mechanisms of their secretion under physiologic conditions are unclear. Immunocytochemistry revealed that TG-A localizes to multivesicular-like structures, whereas TG-B localizes to the cytosol. We also found that TG-A, but not TG-B, was modified concomitantly by N-myristoylation and S-palmitoylation, and N-myristoylation was a pre-requisite for S-palmitoylation. Moreover, TG-A, but not TG-B, was secreted in response to calcium signaling induced by Ca2+ ionophores and uracil, a pathogenic bacteria-derived substance. Brefeldin A and monensin, inhibitors of the ER/Golgi-mediated conventional pathway, did not suppress TG-A secretion, whereas inhibition of S-palmitoylation by 2-bromopalmitate blocked TG-A secretion. Ultracentrifugation, electron microscopy analyses, and treatments with inhibitors of multivesicular body formation revealed that TG-A was secreted via exosomes together with co-transfected mammalian CD63, an exosomal marker, and the secreted TG-A was taken up by other cells. The 8-residue N-terminal fragment of TG-A containing the fatty acylation sites was both necessary and sufficient for the exosome-dependent secretion of TG-A. In conclusion, TG-A is secreted through an unconventional ER/Golgi-independent pathway involving two types of fatty acylations and exosomes.

Correction: Crosslinking of a Peritrophic Matrix Protein Protects Gut Epithelia from Bacterial Exotoxins.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005244.].

Crosslinking of a Peritrophic Matrix Protein Protects Gut Epithelia from Bacterial Exotoxins.

Transglutaminase (TG) catalyzes protein-protein crosslinking, which has important and diverse roles in vertebrates and invertebrates. Here we demonstrate that Drosophila TG crosslinks drosocrystallin, a peritrophic matrix protein, to form a stable fiber structure on the gut peritrophic matrix. RNA interference (RNAi) of the TG gene was highly lethal in flies and induced apoptosis of gut epithelial cells after oral infection with Pseudomonas entomophila. Moreover, AprA, a metalloprotease secreted by P. entomophila, digested non-crosslinked drosocrystallin fibers, but not drosocrystallin fibers crosslinked by TG. In vitro experiments using recombinant drosocrystallin and monalysin proteins demonstrated that monalysin, a pore-forming exotoxin of P. entomophila, was adsorbed on the crosslinked drosocrystallin fibers in the presence of P. entomophila culture supernatant. In addition, gut-specific TG-RNAi flies had a shorter lifespan than control flies after ingesting P. entomophila, whereas the lifespan after ingesting AprA-knockout P. entomophila was at control levels. We conclude that drosocrystallin fibers crosslinked by TG, but not non-crosslinked drosocrystallin fibers, form an important physical barrier against exotoxins of invading pathogenic microbes.