Cardiac activity impacts cortical motor excitability.

Human cognition and action can be influenced by internal bodily processes such as heartbeats. For instance, somatosensory perception is impaired both during the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle and when heartbeats evoke stronger cortical responses. Here, we test whether these cardiac effects originate from overall changes in cortical excitability. Cortical and corticospinal excitability were assessed using electroencephalographic and electromyographic responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation while concurrently monitoring cardiac activity with electrocardiography. Cortical and corticospinal excitability were found to be highest during systole and following stronger neural responses to heartbeats. Furthermore, in a motor task, hand-muscle activity and the associated desynchronization of sensorimotor oscillations were stronger during systole. These results suggest that systolic cardiac signals have a facilitatory effect on motor excitability-in contrast to sensory attenuation that was previously reported for somatosensory perception. Thus, it is possible that distinct time windows exist across the cardiac cycle, optimizing either perception or action.

Naturalistic Spoken Language Comprehension Is Supported by Alpha and Beta Oscillations.

Brain oscillations are prevalent in all species and are involved in numerous perceptual operations. α oscillations are thought to facilitate processing through the inhibition of task-irrelevant networks, while ß oscillations are linked to the putative reactivation of content representations. Can the proposed functional role of α and ß oscillations be generalized from low-level operations to higher-level cognitive processes? Here we address this question focusing on naturalistic spoken language comprehension. Twenty-two (18 female) Dutch native speakers listened to stories in Dutch and French while MEG was recorded. We used dependency parsing to identify three dependency states at each word: the number of (1) newly opened dependencies, (2) dependencies that remained open, and (3) resolved dependencies. We then constructed forward models to predict α and ß power from the dependency features. Results showed that dependency features predict α and ß power in language-related regions beyond low-level linguistic features. Left temporal, fundamental language regions are involved in language comprehension in α, while frontal and parietal, higher-order language regions, and motor regions are involved in ß. Critically, α- and ß-band dynamics seem to subserve language comprehension tapping into syntactic structure building and semantic composition by providing low-level mechanistic operations for inhibition and reactivation processes. Because of the temporal similarity of the α-ß responses, their potential functional dissociation remains to be elucidated. Overall, this study sheds light on the role of α and ß oscillations during naturalistic spoken language comprehension, providing evidence for the generalizability of these dynamics from perceptual to complex linguistic processes.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT It remains unclear whether the proposed functional role of α and ß oscillations in perceptual and motor function is generalizable to higher-level cognitive processes, such as spoken language comprehension. We found that syntactic features predict α and ß power in language-related regions beyond low-level linguistic features when listening to naturalistic speech in a known language. We offer experimental findings that integrate a neuroscientific framework on the role of brain oscillations as "building blocks" with spoken language comprehension. This supports the view of a domain-general role of oscillations across the hierarchy of cognitive functions, from low-level sensory operations to abstract linguistic processes.

Single-pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Affects Working-memory Performance via Posterior Beta-band Oscillations.

A single pulse of TMS (spTMS) during the delay period of a double serial retrocuing working-memory task can briefly rescue decodability of an unprioritized memory item (UMI). This physiological phenomenon, which is paralleled in behavior by involuntary retrieval of the UMI, is carried by the beta frequency band, implicating beta-band dynamics in priority coding in working memory. We decomposed EEG data from 12 participants performing double serial retrocuing with concurrent delivery of spTMS using Spatially distributed PhAse Coupling Extraction. This procedure decomposes the scalp-level signal into a set of discrete coupled oscillators, each with a component strength that can vary over time. The decomposition revealed a diversity of low-frequency components, a subset of them strengthening with the onset of the task, and the majority declining in strength across the trial, as well as within each delay period. Results with spTMS revealed no evidence that it works by activating previously "silent" sources; instead, it had the effect of modulating ongoing activity, specifically by exaggerating the within-delay decrease in strength of posterior beta components. Furthermore, the magnitude of the effect of spTMS on the loading strength of a posterior beta component correlated with the disruptive effect of spTMS on performance, a pattern also seen when analyses were restricted to trials with "UMI-lure" memory probes. Rather than reflecting the "activation" of a putatively "activity silent" UMI, these results implicate beta-band dynamics in a mechanism that distinguishes prioritized from unprioritized, and suggest that the effect of spTMS is to disrupt this code.

Alpha oscillations protect working memory against distracters in a modality-specific way.

Alpha oscillations are thought to be involved in suppressing distracting input in working-memory tasks. Yet, the spatial-temporal dynamics of such suppression remain unclear. Key questions are whether such suppression reflects a domain-general inattentiveness mechanism, or occurs in a stimulus- or modality-specific manner within cortical areas most responsive to the distracters; and whether the suppression is proactive (i.e., preparatory) or reactive. Here, we addressed these questions using a working-memory task where participants had to memorize an array of visually presented digits and reproduce one of them upon being probed. We manipulated the presence of distracters and the sensory modality in which distracters were presented during memory maintenance. Our results show that sensory areas most responsive to visual and auditory distracters exhibited stronger alpha power increase after visual and auditory distracter presentation respectively. These results suggest that alpha oscillations underlie distracter suppression in a reactive, modality-specific manner.

Neural Encoding and Representation of Time for Sensorimotor Control and Learning.

The ability to perceive and produce movements in the real world with precise timing is critical for survival in animals, including humans. However, research on sensorimotor timing has rarely considered the tight interrelation between perception, action, and cognition. In this review, we present new evidence from behavioral, computational, and neural studies in humans and nonhuman primates, suggesting a pivotal link between sensorimotor control and temporal processing, as well as describing new theoretical frameworks regarding timing in perception and action. We first discuss the link between movement coordination and interval-based timing by addressing how motor training develops accurate spatiotemporal patterns in behavior and influences the perception of temporal intervals. We then discuss how motor expertise results from establishing task-relevant neural manifolds in sensorimotor cortical areas and how the geometry and dynamics of these manifolds help reduce timing variability. We also highlight how neural dynamics in sensorimotor areas are involved in beat-based timing. These lines of research aim to extend our understanding of how timing arises from and contributes to perceptual-motor behaviors in complex environments to seamlessly interact with other cognitive processes.

Alpha Oscillations Shape Sensory Representation and Perceptual Sensitivity.

Alpha activity (8-14 Hz) is the dominant rhythm in the awake brain and is thought to play an important role in setting the internal state of the brain. Previous work has associated states of decreased alpha power with enhanced neural excitability. However, evidence is mixed on whether and how such excitability enhancement modulates sensory signals of interest versus noise differently, and what, if any, are the consequences for subsequent perception. Here, human subjects (male and female) performed a visual detection task in which we manipulated their decision criteria in a blockwise manner. Although our manipulation led to substantial criterion shifts, these shifts were not reflected in prestimulus alpha band changes. Rather, lower prestimulus alpha power in occipital-parietal areas improved perceptual sensitivity and enhanced information content decodable from neural activity patterns. Additionally, oscillatory alpha phase immediately before stimulus presentation modulated accuracy. Together, our results suggest that alpha band dynamics modulate sensory signals of interest more strongly than noise.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The internal state of our brain fluctuates, giving rise to variability in perception and action. Neural oscillations, most prominently in the alpha band, have been suggested to play a role in setting this internal state. Here, we show that ongoing alpha band activity in occipital-parietal regions predicts the quality of visual information decodable in neural activity patterns and subsequently the human observer's sensitivity in a visual detection task. Our results provide comprehensive evidence that visual representation is modulated by ongoing alpha band activity and advance our understanding on how, when faced with unchanging external stimuli, internal neural fluctuations influence perception and behavior.

Ongoing neural oscillations influence behavior and sensory representations by suppressing neuronal excitability.

The ability to process and respond to external input is critical for adaptive behavior. Why, then, do neural and behavioral responses vary across repeated presentations of the same sensory input? Ongoing fluctuations of neuronal excitability are currently hypothesized to underlie the trial-by-trial variability in sensory processing. To test this, we capitalized on intracranial electrophysiology in neurosurgical patients performing an auditory discrimination task with visual cues: specifically, we examined the interaction between prestimulus alpha oscillations, excitability, task performance, and decoded neural stimulus representations. We found that strong prestimulus oscillations in the alpha+ band (i.e., alpha and neighboring frequencies), rather than the aperiodic signal, correlated with a low excitability state, indexed by reduced broadband high-frequency activity. This state was related to slower reaction times and reduced neural stimulus encoding strength. We propose that the alpha+ rhythm modulates excitability, thereby resulting in variability in behavior and sensory representations despite identical input.

No behavioural evidence for rhythmic facilitation of perceptual discrimination.

It has been hypothesized that internal oscillations can synchronize (i.e., entrain) to external environmental rhythms, thereby facilitating perception and behaviour. To date, evidence for the link between the phase of neural oscillations and behaviour has been scarce and contradictory; moreover, it remains an open question whether the brain can use this tentative mechanism for active temporal prediction. In our present study, we conducted a series of auditory pitch discrimination tasks with 181 healthy participants in an effort to shed light on the proposed behavioural benefits of rhythmic cueing and entrainment. In the three versions of our task, we observed no perceptual benefit of purported entrainment: targets occurring in-phase with a rhythmic cue provided no perceptual benefits in terms of discrimination accuracy or reaction time when compared with targets occurring out-of-phase or targets occurring randomly, nor did we find performance differences for targets preceded by rhythmic versus random cues. However, we found a surprising effect of cueing frequency on reaction time, in which participants showed faster responses to cue rhythms presented at higher frequencies. We therefore provide no evidence of entrainment, but instead a tentative effect of covert active sensing in which a faster external rhythm leads to a faster communication rate between motor and sensory cortices, allowing for sensory inputs to be sampled earlier in time.

Perceptual Expectations Modulate Low-Frequency Activity: A Statistical Learning Magnetoencephalography Study.

Perceptual expectations can change how a visual stimulus is perceived. Recent studies have shown mixed results in terms of whether expectations modulate sensory representations. Here, we used a statistical learning paradigm to study the temporal characteristics of perceptual expectations. We presented participants with pairs of object images organized in a predictive manner and then recorded their brain activity with magnetoencephalography while they viewed expected and unexpected image pairs on the subsequent day. We observed stronger alpha-band (7-14 Hz) activity in response to unexpected compared with expected object images. Specifically, the alpha-band modulation occurred as early as the onset of the stimuli and was most pronounced in left occipito-temporal cortex. Given that the differential response to expected versus unexpected stimuli occurred in sensory regions early in time, our results suggest that expectations modulate perceptual decision-making by changing the sensory response elicited by the stimuli.

Spatial Attention and Temporal Expectation Exert Differential Effects on Visual and Auditory Discrimination.

Anticipation of an impending stimulus shapes the state of the sensory systems, optimizing neural and behavioral responses. Here, we studied the role of brain oscillations in mediating spatial and temporal anticipations. Because spatial attention and temporal expectation are often associated with visual and auditory processing, respectively, we directly contrasted the visual and auditory modalities and asked whether these anticipatory mechanisms are similar in both domains. We recorded the magnetoencephalogram in healthy human participants performing an auditory and visual target discrimination task, in which cross-modal cues provided both temporal and spatial information with regard to upcoming stimulus presentation. Motivated by prior findings, we were specifically interested in delta (1-3 Hz) and alpha (8-13 Hz) band oscillatory state in anticipation of target presentation and their impact on task performance. Our findings support the view that spatial attention has a stronger effect in the visual domain, whereas temporal expectation effects are more prominent in the auditory domain. For the spatial attention manipulation, we found a typical pattern of alpha lateralization in the visual system, which correlated with response speed. Providing a rhythmic temporal cue led to increased postcue synchronization of low-frequency rhythms, although this effect was more broadband in nature, suggesting a general phase reset rather than frequency-specific neural entrainment. In addition, we observed delta-band synchronization with a frontal topography, which correlated with performance, especially in the auditory task. Combined, these findings suggest that spatial and temporal anticipations operate via a top-down modulation of the power and phase of low-frequency oscillations, respectively.

Beta oscillations reflect supramodal information during perceptual judgment.

Previous work on perceptual decision making in the sensorimotor system has shown population dynamics in the beta band, corresponding to the encoding of stimulus properties and the final decision outcome. Here, we asked how oscillatory dynamics in the medial premotor cortex (MPC) contribute to supramodal perceptual decision making. We recorded local field potentials (LFPs) and spikes in two monkeys trained to perform a tactile-acoustic frequency discrimination task, including both unimodal and crossmodal conditions. We studied the role of oscillatory activity as a function of stimulus properties (frequency and sensory modality), as well as decision outcome. We found that beta-band power correlated with relevant stimulus properties: there was a significant modulation by stimulus frequency during the working-memory (WM) retention interval, as well as modulation by stimulus modality-the latter was observed only in the case of a purely unimodal task, where modality information was relevant to prepare for the upcoming second stimulus. Furthermore, we found a significant modulation of beta power during the comparison and decision period, which was predictive of decision outcome. Finally, beta-band spike-field coherence (SFC) matched these LFP observations. In conclusion, we demonstrate that beta power in MPC is reflective of stimulus features in a supramodal, context-dependent manner, and additionally reflects the decision outcome. We propose that these beta modulations are a signature of the recruitment of functional neuronal ensembles, which encode task-relevant information.

Neural mechanisms of transient neocortical beta rhythms: Converging evidence from humans, computational modeling, monkeys, and mice.

Human neocortical 15-29-Hz beta oscillations are strong predictors of perceptual and motor performance. However, the mechanistic origin of beta in vivo is unknown, hindering understanding of its functional role. Combining human magnetoencephalography (MEG), computational modeling, and laminar recordings in animals, we present a new theory that accounts for the origin of spontaneous neocortical beta. In our MEG data, spontaneous beta activity from somatosensory and frontal cortex emerged as noncontinuous beta events typically lasting <150 ms with a stereotypical waveform. Computational modeling uniquely designed to infer the electrical currents underlying these signals showed that beta events could emerge from the integration of nearly synchronous bursts of excitatory synaptic drive targeting proximal and distal dendrites of pyramidal neurons, where the defining feature of a beta event was a strong distal drive that lasted one beta period (∼50 ms). This beta mechanism rigorously accounted for the beta event profiles; several other mechanisms did not. The spatial location of synaptic drive in the model to supragranular and infragranular layers was critical to the emergence of beta events and led to the prediction that beta events should be associated with a specific laminar current profile. Laminar recordings in somatosensory neocortex from anesthetized mice and awake monkeys supported these predictions, suggesting this beta mechanism is conserved across species and recording modalities. These findings make several predictions about optimal states for perceptual and motor performance and guide causal interventions to modulate beta for optimal function.

Thalamocortical rhythms during a vibrotactile detection task.

To explore the role of oscillatory dynamics of the somatosensory thalamocortical network in perception and decision making, we recorded the simultaneous neuronal activity in the ventral posterolateral nucleus (VPL) of the somatosensory thalamus and primary somatosensory cortex (S1) in two macaque monkeys performing a vibrotactile detection task. Actively detecting a vibrotactile stimulus and reporting its perception elicited a sustained poststimulus beta power increase in VPL and an alpha power decrease in S1, in both stimulus-present and stimulus-absent trials. These oscillatory dynamics in the somatosensory thalamocortical network depended on the behavioral context: they were stronger for the active detection condition than for a passive stimulation condition. Furthermore, contrasting stimulus-present vs. stimulus-absent responses, we found that poststimulus theta power increased in both VPL and S1, and alpha/beta power decreased in S1, reflecting the monkey's perceptual decision but not the motor response per se. Additionally, higher prestimulus alpha power in S1 correlated with an increased probability of the monkey reporting a stimulus, regardless of the actual presence of a stimulus. Thus, we found task-related modulations in oscillatory activity, not only in the neocortex but also in the thalamus, depending on behavioral context. Furthermore, oscillatory modulations reflected the perceptual decision process and subsequent behavioral response. We conclude that these early sensory regions, in addition to their primary sensory functions, may be actively involved in perceptual decision making.

Resting GABA and glutamate concentrations do not predict visual gamma frequency or amplitude.

Gamma band oscillations arise in neuronal networks of interconnected GABAergic interneurons and excitatory pyramidal cells. A previous study found a correlation between visual gamma peak frequency, as measured with magnetoencephalography, and resting GABA levels, as measured with magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), in 12 healthy volunteers. If true, this would allow studies in clinical populations testing modulation of this relationship, but this finding has not been replicated. We addressed this important question by measuring gamma oscillations and GABA, as well as glutamate, in 50 healthy volunteers. Visual gamma activity was evoked using an established gratings paradigm, and we applied a beamformer spatial filtering technique to extract source-reconstructed gamma peak frequency and amplitude from the occipital lobe. We determined gamma peak frequency and amplitude from the location with maximal activation and from the location of the MRS voxel to assess the relationship of GABA with gamma. Gamma peak frequency was estimated from the highest value of the raw spectra and by a Gaussian fit to the spectra. MRS data were acquired from occipital cortex. We did not replicate the previously found correlation between gamma peak frequency and GABA concentration. Calculation of a Bayes factor provided strong evidence in favor of the null hypothesis. We also did not find a correlation between gamma activity and glutamate or between gamma and the ratio of GABA/glutamate. Our results suggest that cortical gamma oscillations do not have a consistent, demonstrable relationship to excitatory/inhibitory network activity as proxied by MRS measurements of GABA and glutamate.

Laminar Profile and Physiology of the α Rhythm in Primary Visual, Auditory, and Somatosensory Regions of Neocortex.

The functional significance of the α rhythm is widely debated. It has been proposed that α reflects sensory inhibition and/or a temporal sampling or "parsing" mechanism. There is also continuing disagreement over the more fundamental questions of which cortical layers generate α rhythms and whether the generation of α is equivalent across sensory systems. To address these latter questions, we analyzed laminar profiles of local field potentials (LFPs) and concomitant multiunit activity (MUA) from macaque V1, S1, and A1 during both spontaneous activity and sensory stimulation. Current source density (CSD) analysis of laminar LFP profiles revealed α current generators in the supragranular, granular, and infragranular layers. MUA phase-locked to local current source/sink configurations confirmed that α rhythms index local neuronal excitability fluctuations. CSD-defined α generators were strongest in the supragranular layers, whereas LFP α power was greatest in the infragranular layers, consistent with some of the previous reports. The discrepancy between LFP and CSD findings appears to be attributable to contamination of the infragranular LFP signal by activity that is volume-conducted from the stronger supragranular α generators. The presence of α generators across cortical depth in V1, S1, and A1 suggests the involvement of α in feedforward as well as feedback processes and is consistent with the view that α rhythms, perhaps in addition to a role in sensory inhibition, may parse sensory input streams in a way that facilitates communication across cortical areas. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The α rhythm is thought to reflect sensory inhibition and/or a temporal parsing mechanism. Here, we address two outstanding issues: (1) whether α is a general mechanism across sensory systems and (2) which cortical layers generate α oscillations. Using intracranial recordings from macaque V1, S1, and A1, we show α band activity with a similar spectral and laminar profile in each of these sensory areas. Furthermore, α generators were present in each of the cortical layers, with a strong source in superficial layers. We argue that previous findings, locating α generators exclusively in the deeper layers, were biased because of use of less locally specific local field potential measurements. The laminar distribution of α band activity appears more complex than generally assumed.

Temporal expectations and neural amplitude fluctuations in auditory cortex interactively influence perception.

Alignment of neural oscillations with temporally regular input allows listeners to generate temporal expectations. However, it remains unclear how behavior is governed in the context of temporal variability: What role do temporal expectations play, and how do they interact with the strength of neural oscillatory activity? Here, human participants detected near-threshold targets in temporally variable acoustic sequences. Temporal expectation strength was estimated using an oscillator model and pre-target neural amplitudes in auditory cortex were extracted from magnetoencephalography signals. Temporal expectations modulated target-detection performance, however, only when neural delta-band amplitudes were large. Thus, slow neural oscillations act to gate influences of temporal expectation on perception. Furthermore, slow amplitude fluctuations governed linear and quadratic influences of auditory alpha-band activity on performance. By fusing a model of temporal expectation with neural oscillatory dynamics, the current findings show that human perception in temporally variable contexts relies on complex interactions between multiple neural frequency bands.

Inter- and intra-individual variability in alpha peak frequency.

Converging electrophysiological evidence suggests that the alpha rhythm plays an important and active role in cognitive processing. Here, we systematically studied variability in posterior alpha peak frequency both between and within subjects. We recorded brain activity using MEG in 51 healthy human subjects under three experimental conditions - rest, passive visual stimulation and an N-back working memory paradigm, using source reconstruction methods to separate alpha activity from parietal and occipital sources. We asked how alpha peak frequency differed within subjects across cognitive conditions and regions of interest, and looked at the distribution of alpha peak frequency between subjects. In both regions we observed an increase of alpha peak frequency from resting state and passive visual stimulation conditions to the N-back paradigm, with a significantly higher alpha peak frequency in the 2-back compared to the 0-back condition. There was a trend for a greater increase in alpha peak frequency during the N-back task in the occipital vs. parietal cortex. The average alpha peak frequency across all subjects, conditions, and regions of interest was 10.3 Hz with a within-subject SD of 0.9 Hz and a between-subject SD of 2.8 Hz. We also measured beta peak frequencies, and except in the parietal cortex during rest, found no indication of a strictly harmonic relationship with alpha peak frequencies. We conclude that alpha peak frequency in posterior regions increases with increasing cognitive demands, and that the alpha rhythm operates across a wider frequency range than the 8-12 Hz band many studies tend to include in their analysis. Thus, using a fixed and limited alpha frequency band might bias results against certain subjects and conditions.

α-Oscillations in the monkey sensorimotor network influence discrimination performance by rhythmical inhibition of neuronal spiking.

Extensive work in humans using magneto- and electroencephalography strongly suggests that decreased oscillatory α-activity (8-14 Hz) facilitates processing in a given region, whereas increased α-activity serves to actively suppress irrelevant or interfering processing. However, little work has been done to understand how α-activity is linked to neuronal firing. Here, we simultaneously recorded local field potentials and spikes from somatosensory, premotor, and motor regions while a trained monkey performed a vibrotactile discrimination task. In the local field potentials we observed strong activity in the α-band, which decreased in the sensorimotor regions during the discrimination task. This α-power decrease predicted better discrimination performance. Furthermore, the α-oscillations demonstrated a rhythmic relation with the spiking, such that firing was highest at the trough of the α-cycle. Firing rates increased with a decrease in α-power. These findings suggest that α-oscillations exercise a strong inhibitory influence on both spike timing and firing rate. Thus, the pulsed inhibition by α-oscillations plays an important functional role in the extended sensorimotor system.

Beta oscillations in the monkey sensorimotor network reflect somatosensory decision making.

The neuronal correlate of perceptual decision making has been extensively studied in the monkey somatosensory system by using a vibrotactile discrimination task, showing that stimulus encoding, retention, and comparison are widely distributed across cortical areas. However, from a network perspective, it is not known what role oscillations play in this task. We recorded local field potentials (LFPs) from diverse cortical areas of the sensorimotor system while one monkey performed the vibrotactile discrimination task. Exclusively during stimulus presentation, a periodic response reflecting the stimulus frequency was observed in the somatosensory regions, suggesting that after initial processing, the frequency content of the stimulus is coded in some other way than entrainment. Interestingly, we found that oscillatory activity in the beta band reflected the dynamics of decision making in the monkey sensorimotor network. During the comparison and decision period, beta activity showed a categorical response that reflected the decision of the monkey and distinguished correct from incorrect responses. Importantly, this differential activity was absent in a control condition that involved the same stimulation and response but no decision making required, suggesting it does not merely reflect the maintenance of a motor plan. We conclude that beta band oscillations reflect the temporal and spatial dynamics of the accumulation and processing of evidence in the sensorimotor network leading to the decision outcome.

Common neural mechanisms supporting time judgements in humans and monkeys.

There has been an increasing interest in identifying the biological underpinnings of human time perception, for which purpose research in non-human primates (NHP) is common. Although previous work, based on behaviour, suggests that similar mechanisms support time perception across species, the neural correlates of time estimation in humans and NHP have not been directly compared. In this study, we assess whether brain evoked responses during a time categorization task are similar across species. Specifically, we assess putative differences in post-interval evoked potentials as a function of perceived duration in human EEG (N = 24) and local field potential (LFP) and spike recordings in pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) of one monkey. Event-related potentials (ERPs) differed significantly after the presentation of the temporal interval between "short" and "long" perceived durations in both species, even when the objective duration of the stimuli was the same. Interestingly, the polarity of the reported ERPs was reversed for incorrect trials (i.e., the ERP of a "long" stimulus looked like the ERP of a "short" stimulus when a time categorization error was made). Hence, our results show that post-interval potentials reflect the perceived (rather than the objective) duration of the presented time interval in both NHP and humans. In addition, firing rates in monkey's pre-SMA also differed significantly between short and long perceived durations and were reversed in incorrect trials. Together, our results show that common neural mechanisms support time categorization in NHP and humans, thereby suggesting that NHP are a good model for investigating human time perception.