A translational model of chronic diabetic nephropathy in the Nile grass rat.

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a major healthcare challenge for individuals with diabetes and associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The existing rodent models do not fully represent the complex course of the human disease. Hence, developing a translational model of diabetes that reproduces both the early and the advanced characteristics of DN and faithfully recapitulates the overall human pathology is an unmet need. Here, we introduce the Nile grass rat (NGR) as a novel model of DN and characterize key pathologies underlying DN. NGRs spontaneously developed insulin resistance, reactive hyperinsulinemia, and hyperglycemia. Diabetic NGRs evolved DN and the key histopathological aspects of the human advanced DN, including glomerular hypertrophy, infiltration of mononuclear cells, tubular dilatation, and atrophy. Enlargement of the glomerular tufts and the Bowman's capsule areas accompanied the expansion of the Bowman's space. Glomerular sclerosis, renal arteriolar hyalinosis, Kimmelsteil-Wilson nodular lesions, and protein cast formations in the kidneys of diabetic NGR occurred with DN. Diabetic kidneys displayed interstitial and glomerular fibrosis, key characteristics of late human pathology as well as thickening of the glomerular basement membrane and podocyte effacement. Signs of injury included glomerular lipid accumulation, significantly more apoptotic cells, and expression of KIM-1. Diabetic NGRs became hypertensive, a known risk factor for kidney dysfunction, and showed decreased glomerular filtration rate. Diabetic NGRs recapitulate the breadth of human DN pathology and reproduce the consequences of chronic kidney disease, including injury and loss of function of the kidney. Hence, NGR represents a robust model for studying DN-related complications and provides a new foundation for more detailed mechanistic studies of the genesis of nephropathy, and the development of new therapeutic approaches.

Design, construction and in vivo functional assessment of a hinge truncated sFLT01.

Gene therapy for the treatment of ocular neovascularization has reached clinical trial phases. The AAV2-sFLT01 construct was already evaluated in a phase 1 open-label trial administered intravitreally to patients with advanced neovascular age-related macular degeneration. SFLT01 protein functions by binding to VEGF and PlGF molecules and inhibiting their activities simultaneously. It consists of human VEGFR1/Flt-1 (hVEGFR1), a polyglycine linker, and the Fc region of human IgG1. The IgG1 upper hinge region of the sFLT01 molecule makes it vulnerable to radical attacks and prone to causing immune reactions. This study pursued two goals: (i) minimizing the immunogenicity and vulnerability of the molecule by designing a truncated molecule called htsFLT01 (hinge truncated sFLT01) that lacked the IgG1 upper hinge and lacked 2 amino acids from the core hinge region; and (ii) investigating the structural and functional properties of the aforesaid chimeric molecule at different levels (in silico, in vitro, and in vivo). Molecular dynamics simulations and molecular mechanics energies combined with Poisson-Boltzmann and surface area continuum solvation calculations revealed comparable free energy of binding and binding affinity for sFLT01 and htsFLT01 to their cognate ligands. Conditioned media from human retinal pigment epithelial (hRPE) cells that expressed htsFLT01 significantly reduced tube formation in HUVECs. The AAV2-htsFLT01 virus suppressed vascular development in the eyes of newborn mice. The htsFLT01 gene construct is a novel anti-angiogenic tool with promising improvements compared to existing treatments.

Pre-hyperglycemia immune cell trafficking underlies subclinical diabetic cataractogenesis.

BACKGROUND: This work elucidates the first cellular and molecular causes of cataractogenesis. Current paradigm presupposes elevated blood glucose as a prerequisite in diabetic cataractogenesis. Novel evidence in our model of diabetic cataract challenges this notion and introduces immune cell migration to the lens and epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (EMT) of lens epithelial cells (LECs) as underlying causes. METHODS: Paucity of suitable animal models has hampered mechanistic studies of diabetic cataract, as most studies were traditionally carried out in acutely induced hyperglycemic animals. We introduced diabetic cataract in the Nile grass rat (NGR) that spontaneously develops type 2 diabetes (T2D) and showed its closeness to the human condition. Specialized stereo microscopy with dual bright-field illumination revealed novel hyperreflective dot-like microlesions in the inner cortical regions of the lens. To study immune cell migration to the lens, we developed a unique in situ microscopy technique of the inner eye globe in combination with immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Contrary to the existing paradigm, in about half of the animals, the newly introduced hyper reflective dot-like microlesions preceded hyperglycemia. Even though the animals were normoglycemic, we found significant changes in their oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), indicative of the prediabetic stage. The microlesions were accompanied with significant immune cell migration from the ciliary bodies to the lens, as revealed in our novel in situ microscopy technique. Immune cells adhered to the lens surface, some traversed the lens capsule, and colocalized with apoptotic nuclei of the lens epithelial cells (LECs). Extracellular degradations, amorphous material accumulations, and changes in E-cadherin expressions showed epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (EMT) in LECs. Subsequently, lens fiber disintegration and cataract progression extended into cortical, posterior, and anterior subcapsular cataracts. CONCLUSIONS: Our results establish a novel role for immune cells in LEC transformation and death. The fact that cataract formation precedes hyperglycemia challenges the prevailing paradigm that glucose initiates or is necessary for initiation of the pathogenesis. Novel evidence shows that molecular and cellular complications of diabetes start during the prediabetic state. These results have foreseeable ramifications for early diagnosis, prevention and development of new treatment strategies in patients with diabetes.

Diabetic cataract in the Nile grass rat: A longitudinal phenotypic study of pathology formation.

Diabetes is a major risk factor for cataract, the leading cause of blindness worldwide. There is an unmet need for a realistic model of diabetic cataract for mechanistic and longitudinal studies, as existing models do not reflect key aspects of the complex human disease. Here, we introduce and characterize diabetic cataract in the Nile grass rat (NGR, Arvicanthis niloticus), an established model of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes (T2D). We conducted a longitudinal study of cataract in over 88 NGRs in their non-diabetic, pre-diabetic, and diabetic stages of metabolism. Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) results distinguished the metabolic stages. Diverse cataract types were observed in the course of diabetes, including cortical, posterior subcapsular (PSC), and anterior subcapsular (ASC), all of which succeeded a characteristic dotted ring stage in all animals. The onset ages of diabetes and cataract were 44 ± 3 vs 29 ± 1 (P < .001) and 66 ± 5 vs 58 ± 6 (not significant) weeks in females and males, respectively. Histological analysis revealed fiber disorganization, vacuolar structures, and cellular proliferation and migration in cataractous lenses. The lens epithelial cells (LECs) in non-diabetic young NGRs expressed the stress marker GRP78, as did LECs and migrated cells in the lenses of diabetic animals. Elucidating mechanisms underlying LEC proliferation and migration will be clinically valuable in prevention and treatment of posterior capsule opacification, a dreaded complication of cataract surgery. Marked changes in N-cadherin expression emphasized a role for LEC integrity in cataractogenesis. Apoptotic cells were dispersed in the equatorial areas in early cataractogenesis. Our study reveals diverse cataract types that spontaneously develop in the diabetic NGR, and which uniquely mirror the cataract and its chronic course of development in individuals with diabetes. We provide mechanistic insights into early stages of diabetic cataract. These unique characteristics make NGR highly suited for mechanistic studies, especially in the context of metabolism, diabetes, and aging.

CD47 Binding on Vascular Endothelial Cells Inhibits IL-17-Mediated Leukocyte Adhesion.

To address the conflicting role of thrombospondin (TSP)-1 reported in acute and chronic pathologies, this study investigated the role of TSP-1 in regulating leukocyte recruitment and regulation of VCAM-1 expression using mouse models of uveitis. The spontaneously increased VCAM-1 expression and leukocyte adhesion in retinas of TSP-1-deficient mice suggested a TSP-1-mediated regulation of VCAM-1 expression. In a chronic uveitis model, induced by immunizing wild-type mice with specific interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP) peptide, topically applied TSP-1-derived CD47-binding peptide significantly reduced the clinical disease course and retinal leukocyte adhesion as compared to the control peptide-treated group. In contrast, in LPS-mediated acute uveitis, TSP-1 deficiency significantly reduced the retinal leukocyte adhesion. The results of our in vitro study, using vascular endothelial cell (EC) cultures, demonstrate that unlike TNF-α, VCAM-1 expression induced by IL-17 is associated with a reduced expression of endogenous TSP-1. Such reduced endogenous TSP-1 expression in IL-17-stimulated ECs helps limit the CD36-mediated increased VCAM-1 expression, while favoring CD47-mediated inhibition of VCAM-1 expression and leukocyte adhesion. Thus, our study identifies TSP-1:CD47 interaction as a molecular pathway that modulates IL-17-mediated VCAM-1 expression, contributing to its anti-inflammatory effect in chronic inflammatory conditions.

Peripheral blood CD163(+) monocytes and soluble CD163 in dry and neovascular age-related macular degeneration.

Macrophages are the main infiltrating immune cells in choroidal neovascularization (CNV), a hallmark of the human wet, or neovascular age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Due to their plasticity and ability to adapt to the local microenvironment in a tissue-dependent manner, macrophages display polar functional phenotypes characterized by their cell surface markers and their cytokine profiles. We found accumulation of hemoglobin-scavenging cluster of differentiation 163 (CD163)(+) macrophages in laser-induced CNV lesions and higher expression of CD163(+) monocytes in the peripheral blood on day 7 post injury in mice. In comparison, CD80(+) macrophages did not differ with laser-injury in young or aged mice and did not significantly change in the peripheral blood of CNV mice. We examined the percentages of CD163(+), CD206(+), and CD80(+) monocytes in the peripheral blood of patients with wet AMD, patients with dry AMD, and in age-matched individuals without AMD as controls. Percentages of peripheral blood CD163(+) monocytes in both dry AMD (P < .001) and wet AMD (P < .05) were higher than in age-matched non-AMD controls, while there was no difference between the groups in the percentages of peripheral CD206(+) and CD80(+) monocytes. Further, serum level of soluble CD163 (sCD163) was elevated only in patients with wet AMD (P < .05). An examination of 40 cytokine levels across the study groups revealed that anti-VEGF treated patients with wet AMD, who showed no exudative signs on the day of blood drawing had a cytokine profile that was similar to that of non-AMD individuals. These results indicate that CD163 could be further evaluated for its potential as a useful marker of disease activity in patients with neovascular AMD. Future studies will address the origin and potential mechanistic role of CD163(+) macrophages in wet AMD pathologies of angiogenesis and leakage of blood components.

In contrast to Western diet, a plant-based, high-fat, low-sugar diet does not exacerbate retinal endothelial injury in streptozotocin-induced diabetes.

Controversy remains about how diet affects the vascular endothelial dysfunction associated with disordered insulin-glucose homeostasis. It is postulated that the type and level of certain macronutrients contribute to endothelial dysfunction in vascular diabetes complications. However, it is not well understood how specific macronutrients affect the molecular inflammatory response under conditions of hyperglycemia. Here, we examined retinal microvascular endothelial injury in streptozotocin (STZ)-diabetic rats fed a laboratory Western diet (WD). WD, characterized by its high content of saturated fat, cholesterol, and sugar, significantly increased retinal leukocyte accumulation and endothelial injury in the STZ-diabetic rats. Suppression of endothelial NF-κB signaling in the STZ model reduced the WD-induced increase in leukocyte accumulation. To isolate the effect of dietary fat, we generated high-fat diets with varying fatty acid balance and type. These diets contained moderate amounts of carbohydrates but no sugar. We found that neither high levels of saturated or unsaturated fats per se increased retinal leukocyte accumulation and endothelial injury in the STZ-diabetic rat model but that the combination of high levels of dietary cholesterol with specific saturated fatty acids that are abundant in WD exacerbated leukocyte accumulation and endothelial injury in the retinas of STZ-diabetic rats.-Barakat, A., Nakao, S., Zandi, S., Sun, D., Schmidt-Ullrich, R., Hayes, K. C., Hafezi-Moghadam, A. In contrast to Western diet, a plant-based, high-fat, low-sugar diet does not exacerbate retinal endothelial injury in streptozotocin-induced diabetes.

Effects of intravitreal connective tissue growth factor neutralizing antibody on choroidal neovascular membrane-associated subretinal fibrosis.

Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) plays an essential role in the regulation of extracellular matrix proteins and pro-fibrotic and angiogenic factors. This experimental research was conducted to evaluate if CTGF is elevated after induction of a choroidal neovascular membrane (CNVM) and whether intravitreal anti-CTGF without and with intravitreal bevacizumab (IVB) may have any effect on the CNVM associated sub-retinal fibrosis. In adherence to ARRIVE guidelines, CNVM was induced by laser spots in the right eye retinas of ninety-four pigmented rats. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) and western-blot analysis were performed on sclerochoroidal tissues of forty-four rats before and at different time intervals after laser application. The remaining fifty rats were randomly divided into five groups after laser application. Group A received intravitreal injection of 2  µl of the 50 µg/ml anti-CTGF. In group B, intravitreal injection of 2  µl of 25 mg/ml bevacizumab was performed. Group C received 1  µl intravitreal anti-CTGF and 1  µl IVB. Group D did not receive any intravitreal injection as the control group. In group E, intravitreal injection of 2  µl of nonspecific purified mouse IgG antibody was performed as the placebo group. After two weeks, double immunohistochemistry was performed by isolectin B4 and anti-collagen type1 on the sclerochoroidal flat-mounts. Masked measurement of the fluorescent images of the CNVM and CNVM associated sub-retinal fibrosis areas was performed using the image J software. Ctgf mRNA and CTGF protein levels increased to the maximum level in 24 h after laser application and remained higher than the control level up to the 14th day for the Ctgf mRNA and up to the 7th day for the CTGF protein level. Means of CNVM associated sub-retinal fibrosis areas in three treatment groups (A, B and C) were significantly less than the control (D) and placebo (E) groups (P < 0.001, <0.05, <0.001 respectively). For groups A and C, mean CNVM associated sub-retinal fibrosis areas were also significantly less than group B (P < 0.05 and < 0.01, respectively). In conclusion, this study showed significant reduction of the CNVM associated sub-retinal fibrosis via inhibition of the CTGF which mediates the final steps of fibrosis in various inflammatory and angiogenic pathways.

Cathepsin B-mediated CD18 shedding regulates leukocyte recruitment from angiogenic vessels.

Cathepsin B (CtsB) contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer progression by processing the extracellular matrix and promoting angiogenesis. Although CtsB was reported to promote and reduce angiogenesis, there is no mechanistic explanation that reconciles this apparent discrepancy. CtsB cleaves CD18 from the surface of immune cells, but its contribution to angiogenesis has not been studied. We developed an in vivo technique for visualization of immune cell transmigration from corneal vessels toward implanted cytokines. Wild-type (WT) leukocytes extravasated from limbal vessels, angiogenic stalks, and growing tip vessels and migrated toward the cytokines, indicating immune competence of angiogenic vessels. Compared to WT leukocytes, CtsB-/- leukocytes accumulated in a higher number in angiogenic vessels, but extravasated less toward the implanted cytokine. The accumulated CtsB-/- leukocytes in angiogenic vessels expressed more CD18. CD18-/- leukocytes extravasated later than WT leukocytes. However, once extravasated, CD18-/- leukocytes transmigrated more rapidly than their WT counterparts. These results suggest that, although CD18 facilitates efficient extravasation, outside of the vessel CD18 interaction with the extracellular matrix, it reduced transmigration velocity. Our results reveal an unexpected role for CtsB in leukocyte extravasation and transmigration, which advances our understanding of the complex contribution of CtsB to angiogenesis.-Nakao, S., Zandi, S., Sun, D., Hafezi-Moghadam, A. Cathepsin B-mediated CD18 shedding regulates leukocyte recruitment from angiogenic vessels.

Phenotypic transformation of intimal and adventitial lymphatics in atherosclerosis: a regulatory role for soluble VEGF receptor 2.

The role of lymphatics in atherosclerosis is not yet understood. Here, we investigate lymphatic growth dynamics and marker expression in atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient (apoE(-/-)) mice. The prolymphangiogenic growth factor, VEGF-C, was elevated in atherosclerotic aortic walls. Despite increased VEGF-C, we found that adventitial lymphatics regress during the course of formation of atherosclerosis (P < 0.01). Similar to lymphatic regression, the number of lymphatic vessel endothelial hyaluronan receptor 1 (LYVE-1(+)) macrophages decreased in the aortic adventitia of apoE(-/-) mice with atherosclerosis (P < 0.01). Intimal lymphatics in the atherosclerotic lesions exhibited an atypical phenotype, with the expression of podoplanin and VEGF receptor 3 (VEGFR-3) but not of LYVE-1 and prospero homeobox protein 1. In the aortas of atherosclerotic animals, we found markedly increased soluble VEGFR-2. We hypothesized that the elevated soluble VEGFR-2 that was found in the aortas of apoE(-/-) mice with atherosclerosis binds to and diminishes the activity of VEGF-C. This trapping mechanism explains, despite increased VEGF-C in the atherosclerotic aortas, how adventitial lymphatics regress. Lymphatic regression impedes the drainage of lipids, growth factors, inflammatory cytokines, and immune cells. Insufficient lymphatic drainage could thus exacerbate atherosclerosis formation. Our study contributes new insights to previously unknown dynamic changes of adventitial lymphatics. Targeting soluble VEGFR-2 in atherosclerosis may provide a new strategy for the liberation of endogenous VEGF-C and the prevention of lymphatic regression.-Taher, M., Nakao, S., Zandi, S., Melhorn, M. I., Hayes, K. C., Hafezi-Moghadam, A. Phenotypic transformation of intimal and adventitial lymphatics in atherosclerosis: a regulatory role for soluble VEGF receptor 2.

Retinopathy in a novel model of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: new insight on the inflammatory paradigm.

The pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy (DR) in metabolic syndrome (MetS) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) is not well studied, partly because an appropriate model has not been developed. Recently, we introduced a novel model of spontaneous T2D and MetS that replicates the relevant features of the human disease. In the current study, we investigated the retinal vascular changes in these animals. Experimental DR in streptozotocin (STZ)-injected rodents is described as an inflammatory disease, in which intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) plays a key role. In comparison, advanced diabetes (HbA1c>10%) in the Nile grass rat (NGR) was associated with lower ICAM-1 protein expression when compared with that in normal or moderately diabetic animals. Vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) expression, however, was unaffected by the disease state. As opposed to the STZ-induced model of DR, in diabetic NGRs, most leukocytes accumulated in the retinal arteries. Consistent with the ICAM-1 reduction, leukocyte accumulation was significantly reduced in advanced disease. Similarly, leukocyte adhesions were significantly lower, with elevated plasma triglycerides (>200 mg/dl), and cholesterol (>240 mg/dl). However, these adhesions were significantly higher in animals with higher plasma insulin (>5 µIU/ml) and leptin (>20 ng/ml), suggesting a role for these hormones in diabetic retinal leukostasis. Diabetic NGRs showed substantial retinal endothelial injury, primarily in the microvessels, including vascular tortuosity, obliterated acellular capillaries, and pericyte ghosts. The NGR provides a convenient and realistic model for investigation of retinal changes in MetS/T2D with convincing advantages over the commonly used STZ-induced T1D.

Molecular imaging reveals elevated VEGFR-2 expression in retinal capillaries in diabetes: a novel biomarker for early diagnosis.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a microvascular complication of diabetes and a leading cause of vision loss. Biomarkers and methods for early diagnosis of DR are urgently needed. Using a new molecular imaging approach, we show up to 94% higher accumulation of custom designed imaging probes against vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR-2) in retinal and choroidal vessels of diabetic animals (P<0.01), compared to normal controls. More than 80% of the VEGFR-2 in the diabetic retina was in the capillaries, compared to 47% in normal controls (P<0.01). Angiography in rabbit retinas revealed microvascular capillaries to be the location for VEGF-A-induced leakage, as expressed by significantly higher rate of fluorophore spreading with VEGF-A injection when compared to vehicle control (26±2 vs. 3±1 µm/s, P<0.05). Immunohistochemistry showed VEGFR-2 expression in capillaries of diabetic animals but not in normal controls. Macular vessels from diabetic patients (n=7) showed significantly more VEGFR-2 compared to nondiabetic controls (n=5) or peripheral retinal regions of the same retinas (P<0.01 in both cases). Here we introduce a new approach for early diagnosis of DR and VEGFR-2 as a molecular marker. VEGFR-2 could become a key diagnostic target, one that might help to prevent retinal vascular leakage and proliferation in diabetic patients.

Periostin promotes the generation of fibrous membranes in proliferative vitreoretinopathy.

Proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) is a severe, vision-threatening disorder characterized by the fibrous membrane formation that leads to tractional retinal detachment. There has been no effective therapeutic approach other than vitreoretinal surgery. In this study, DNA microarray analysis of the fibrous membranes revealed significant up-regulation of periostin. We also found increased periostin expression in the vitreous and retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells from fibrous membranes of PVR patients. In vitro, periostin increased proliferation, adhesion, migration, and collagen production in RPE cells through integrin αV-mediated FAK and AKT phosphorylation. Periostin blockade suppressed migration and adhesion induced by TGFß2 and PVR vitreous. In vivo, periostin inhibition had the inhibitory effect on progression of experimental PVR in rabbit eyes without affecting the viability of retinal cells. These results identified periostin as a pivotal molecule for fibrous membrane formation as well as a promising therapeutic target for PVR.

Neutrophils express oncomodulin and promote optic nerve regeneration.

Although neurons are normally unable to regenerate their axons after injury to the CNS, this situation can be partially reversed by activating the innate immune system. In a widely studied instance of this phenomenon, proinflammatory agents have been shown to cause retinal ganglion cells, the projection neurons of the eye, to regenerate lengthy axons through the injured optic nerve. However, the role of different molecules and cell populations in mediating this phenomenon remains unclear. We show here that neutrophils, the first responders of the innate immune system, play a central role in inflammation-induced regeneration. Numerous neutrophils enter the mouse eye within a few hours of inducing an inflammatory reaction and express high levels of the atypical growth factor oncomodulin (Ocm). Immunodepletion of neutrophils diminished Ocm levels in the eye without altering levels of CNTF, leukemia inhibitory factor, or IL-6, and suppressed the proregenerative effects of inflammation. A peptide antagonist of Ocm suppressed regeneration as effectively as neutrophil depletion. Macrophages enter the eye later in the inflammatory process but appear to be insufficient to stimulate extensive regeneration in the absence of neutrophils. These data provide the first evidence that neutrophils are a major source of Ocm and can promote axon regeneration in the CNS.

Role of Interleukin-21 in retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury: Unveiling the impact on retinal ganglion cell apoptosis.

BACKGROUND: Retinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) serves as a significant contributor to ocular diseases, triggering a cascade of pathological processes. The interplay between neuroinflammation and the apoptosis of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) is a well-explored aspect of retinal I/R-induced tissue damage. Within this intricate landscape, the inflammatory cytokine Interleukin-21 (IL21) emerges as a potent mediator of neuroinflammation with known detrimental effects on neuronal integrity. However, its specific impact on RGC apoptosis in the context of retinal I/R has remains to be uncovered. This study aims to unravel the potential anti-apoptotic effects of IL21 siRNA on RGC, shedding light on the neuroprotection of retinal I/R. METHODS: Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats underwent a controlled elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP) to 110 mmHg for 60 min to simulate retinal I/R conditions. To explore the influence of IL21 on RGC apoptosis and its underlying molecular mechanisms, a comprehensive array of techniques such immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, TUNEL, Hematoxylin-eosin (H&E), immunoblotting, and qRT-PCR were carried out. RESULTS: The landscape of retinal I/R injury revealed an increase in the expression of IL21, reaching its peak at 72 h. Notably, IL21 markedly induced RGC apoptosis within the retinal I/R milieu. The introduction of IL21 siRNA showed promising outcomes, manifesting as an amelioration of neurological function deficits, a reduction in RGC loss, and an increase in the thickness of the inner retinal layer at the 72-hour reperfusion. Additionally, IL21 siRNA demonstrated its ability to hinder the release of proteins associated with apoptosis via the JAK/STAT signaling pathway. In the in vitro setting, IL21 siRNA efficiently reduced R28 cell apoptosis by suppressing the production of proteins associated with apoptosis by regulating the JAK/STAT signaling pathway. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence for the pathogenic role of IL21 in retinal I/R. The findings underscore IL21 siRNA as a promising therapeutic target for ischemic retinal injury. Its efficacy lies in its ability to mitigate RGC apoptosis by suppressing the JAK/STAT signaling pathway. These findings not only enhance our comprehension of retinal I/R pathology but also suggests IL21 siRNA as a potential transformative factor in the development of targeted therapies for ischemic retinal injuries.

Blood vessel endothelial VEGFR-2 delays lymphangiogenesis: an endogenous trapping mechanism links lymph- and angiogenesis.

Angio- and lymphangiogenesis are inherently related processes. However, how blood and lymphatic vessels regulate each other is unknown. This work introduces a novel mechanism explaining the temporal and spatial relation of blood and lymphatic vessels. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) surprisingly reduced VEGF-C in the supernatant of blood vessel endothelial cells, suggesting growth factor (GF) clearance by the growing endothelium. The orientation of lymphatic sprouting toward angiogenic vessels and away from exogenous GFs was VEGF-C dependent. In vivo molecular imaging revealed higher VEGF receptor (R)-2 in angiogenic tips compared with normal vessels. Consistently, lymphatic growth was impeded in the angiogenic front. VEGF-C/R-2 complex in the cytoplasm of VEGF-A-treated endothelium indicated that receptor-mediated internalization causes GF clearance from the extracellular matrix. GF clearance by receptor-mediated internalization is a new paradigm explaining various characteristics of lymphatics.

Discontinuous LYVE-1 expression in corneal limbal lymphatics: dual function as microvalves and immunological hot spots.

LYVE-1(+) corneal lymphatics contribute to drainage and immunity. LYVE-1 is widely accepted as the most reliable lymphatic marker because of its continuous expression in lymphatic endothelium. LYVE-1 expression in corneal lymphatics has not been examined. In this study, we report intact CD31(+) corneal lymphatic capillary endothelial cells that do not express LYVE-1. The number of LYVE-1(-) gaps initially increased until 8 wk of age but was significantly reduced in aged mice. C57BL/6 mice showed a notably higher number of the LYVE-1(-)/CD31(+) lymphatic regions than BALB/c mice, which suggests a genetic predisposition for this histological feature. The LYVE-1(-) lymphatic gaps expressed podoplanin and VE-cadherin but not αSMA or FOXC2. Interestingly, the number of LYVE-1(-) gaps in FGF-2, but not VEGF-A, implanted corneas was significantly lower than in untreated corneas. Over 70% of the CD45(+) leukocytes were found in the proximity of the LYVE-1(-) gaps. Using a novel in vivo imaging technique for visualization of leukocyte migration into and out of corneal stroma, we showed reentry of extravasated leukocytes from angiogenic vessels into newly grown corneal lymphatics. This process was inhibited by VE-cadherin blockade. To date, existence of lymphatic valves in cornea is unknown. Electron microscopy showed overlapping lymphatic endothelial ends, reminiscent of microvalves in corneal lymphatics. This work introduces a novel corneal endothelial lymphatic phenotype that lacks LYVE-1. LYVE-1(-) lymphatic endothelium could serve as microvalves, supporting unidirectional flow, as well as immunological hot spots that facilitate reentry of stromal macropahges.

Heat treatment of retinal pigment epithelium induces production of elastic lamina components and antiangiogenic activity.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of blindness in the Western world. In advanced AMD, new vessels from choriocapillaris (CC) invade through the Bruch's membrane (BrM) into the retina, forming choroidal neovascularization (CNV). BrM, an elastic lamina that is located between the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and CC, is thought to act as a physical and functional barrier against CNV. The BrM of patients with early AMD are characterized by decreased levels of antiangiogenic factors, including endostatin, thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), and pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), as well as by degeneration of the elastic layer. Motivated by a previous report that heat increases elastin expression in human skin, we examined the effect of heat on human ARPE-19 cell production of BrM components. Heat treatment stimulated the production of BrM components, including TSP-1, PEDF, and tropoelastin in vitro and increased the antiangiogenic activity of RPE measured in a mouse corneal pocket assay. The effect of heat on experimental CNV was investigated by pretreating the retina with heat via infrared diode laser prior to the induction of CNV. Heat treatment blocked the development of experimental CNV in vivo. These findings suggest that heat treatment may restore BrM integrity and barrier function against new vessel growth.

Breath Biopsy Reveals Systemic Immunothrombosis and Its Resolution through Bioorthogonal Dendritic Nanoprobes.

Immunothrombosis, an inflammation-dependent activation of the coagulation cascade, leads to microthrombi formations in small vessels. It is a dreaded complication of COVID-19 and a major cause of respiratory failure. Due to their size and disseminated nature, microthrombi are currently undetectable. Here, noninvasive detection of a volatile reporter in the exhaled air is introduced for assessment of systemic immunothrombosis. A dendritic nanoprobe, containing high loading of a thrombin-sensitive substrate, is selectively cleaved by thrombin, resulting in release of a synthetic bioorthogonal volatile organic compound (VOC). The VOC is quantitated in the exhaled air biopsies via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), allowing near real-time assessment of systemic immunothrombosis. The VOC detection can be further improved with more rapid and sensitive MS-based technologies. The amount of the VOC in the exhaled air decreases with resolution of the microvascular inflammation and intravascular fibrin depositions. Through conjugation of the thrombin-sensitive peptide with a rhodol derivative, a novel thrombin-sensitive fluorescent nanoprobe is developed for intravital visualization of thrombin activity in actively growing thrombi. These results establish unprecedented detection of thrombin activity in vivo, addressing this unmet medical need. This novel approach facilitates diagnosis of immunothrombosis in diseases such as diabetic complications, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and COVID-19.

VEGFR-2 adhesive nanoprobes reveal early diabetic retinopathy in vivo.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a debilitating organ manifestation of diabetes. Absent of early diagnosis and intervention, vision tends to drastically and irreversibly decline. Previously, we showed higher vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR-2) expression in diabetic microvessels, and the suitability of this molecule as a biomarker for early DR diagnosis. However, a hurdle to translation remained generation of biodegradable nanoprobes that are sufficiently bright for in vivo detection. Here, an adhesive fluorescent nanoprobe with high brightness was developed using biodegradable materials. To achieve that, a fluorophore with bulky hydrophobic groups was encapsulated in the nanoparticles to minimize fluorophore π-π stacking, which diminishes brightness at higher loading contents. The nanoprobe selectively targeted the VEGFR-2 under dynamic flow conditions. Upon systemic injection, the nanoprobes adhered in the retinal microvessels of diabetic mice and were visualized as bright spots in live retinal microscopy. Histology validated the in vivo results and showed binding of the nanoprobes to the microvascular endothelium and firmly adhering leukocytes. Leukocytes were found laden with nanoprobes, indicating the potential for payload transport across the blood-retinal barrier. Our results establish the translational potential of these newly generated nanoprobes in early diagnosis of DR.