Incidence of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) in the pediatric population at the University Hospitals of Strasbourg (HUS) and characterization of confirmed cases.

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a vector-borne disease caused by the TBE virus (TBEV). Although TBEV infection in children seems to lead to a milder clinical presentation, data in pediatrics are scarce. We aimed to determine the incidence of TBE among pediatric patients presenting with neurological symptoms from January 2020 to December 2022 at the University Hospital of Strasbourg (HUS), France. 462 Patients for whom cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were available were included and categorized by age group: 0-4 years, 5-9 years, and 10-15 years. Serological tests and RT-PCR were carried out on the CSF samples, and the positive results were confirmed by seroneutralization test (SNT). A CSF IL-6 assay was performed for confirmed cases. We retrospectively detected four TBE-confirmed cases. We found an incidence of 1.51 cases per 100,000 inhabitants in the pediatric population over 2020-2022. The four cases were girls, with a median age of 10.4 years. The symptoms appeared in two cases in October 2022, outside the seasonal peak. Signs of encephalitis were present in two patients, and persistent sequelae were reported in three patients and two more than a year after hospitalization. None of the confirmed cases were vaccinated against TBEV despite frequent exposure to ticks. Intrathecal concentrations of IL-6 were increased for two patients; for one patient, the concentration was significantly higher than the values found in control cases. Our data highlight the need for early diagnosis and long-term follow-up of affected children and raise questions about the evolution of vaccination recommendations.

Case Report and Literature Review of Prosthetic Cardiovascular Mucormycosis.

We report a rare case of aorto-bi-iliac prosthetic allograft mucormycosis in a 57-year-old immunocompetent patient in France. Outcome was favorable after surgery and dual antifungal therapy with liposomal amphotericin B and isavuconazole. In a literature review, we identified 12 other cases of prosthetic vascular or heart valve mucormycosis; mortality rate was 38%.

Cerebral perfusion using ASL in patients with COVID-19 and neurological manifestations: A retrospective multicenter observational study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Cerebral hypoperfusion has been reported in patients with COVID-19 and neurological manifestations in small cohorts. We aimed to systematically assess changes in cerebral perfusion in a cohort of 59 of these patients, with or without abnormalities on morphological MRI sequences. METHODS: Patients with biologically-confirmed COVID-19 and neurological manifestations undergoing a brain MRI with technically adequate arterial spin labeling (ASL) perfusion were included in this retrospective multicenter study. ASL maps were jointly reviewed by two readers blinded to clinical data. They assessed abnormal perfusion in four regions of interest in each brain hemisphere: frontal lobe, parietal lobe, posterior temporal lobe, and temporal pole extended to the amygdalo-hippocampal complex. RESULTS: Fifty-nine patients (44 men (75%), mean age 61.2 years) were included. Most patients had a severe COVID-19, 57 (97%) needed oxygen therapy and 43 (73%) were hospitalized in intensive care unit at the time of MRI. Morphological brain MRI was abnormal in 44 (75%) patients. ASL perfusion was abnormal in 53 (90%) patients, and particularly in all patients with normal morphological MRI. Hypoperfusion occurred in 48 (81%) patients, mostly in temporal poles (52 (44%)) and frontal lobes (40 (34%)). Hyperperfusion occurred in 9 (15%) patients and was closely associated with post-contrast FLAIR leptomeningeal enhancement (100% [66.4%-100%] of hyperperfusion with enhancement versus 28.6% [16.6%-43.2%] without, p = 0.002). Studied clinical parameters (especially sedation) and other morphological MRI anomalies had no significant impact on perfusion anomalies. CONCLUSION: Brain ASL perfusion showed hypoperfusion in more than 80% of patients with severe COVID-19, with or without visible lesion on conventional MRI abnormalities.

Fungal Infections Caused by Kazachstania spp., Strasbourg, France, 2007-2020.

Rare fungal pathogens are emerging as agents of invasive fungal infections. We analyzed 13 cases of fungal infections caused by Kazachstania (Arxiozyma) spp. in Strasbourg University Hospital, Strasbourg, France. Among the cases, 4 patients had proven fungal disease (3 cases of invasive fungal disease and 1 mucocutaneous infection) and 9 were colonized by Kazachstania (Arxiozyma) spp. Candida albicans was also isolated from 11 of the 13 patients. None of the patients with proven invasive fungal disease met host criteria, but most had underlying diseases. All strains were identified as K. telluris by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, and 3 were confirmed as K. bovina by internal transcribed spacer sequencing. For all tested strains, the MICs for fluconazole were >2 µg/mL. Emergence of this rare fungal infection might be explained by the increasing number of patients with immunocompromised conditions and gastroesophageal diseases.

Sex Differences in the Evolution of Neutralizing Antibodies to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2.

We measured anti-spike (S), nucleoprotein (N), and neutralizing antibodies in sera from 308 healthcare workers with a positive reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction result for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 and with mild disease, collected at 2 timepoints up to 6 months after symptom onset. At month 1, anti-S and -N antibody levels were higher in male participants aged >50 years and participants with a body mass index (BMI) >25 kg/m2. At months 3-6, anti-S and anti-N antibodies were detected in 99% and 59% of individuals, respectively. Anti-S antibodies and neutralizing antibodies declined faster in men than in women, independent of age and BMI, suggesting an association of sex with evolution of the humoral response.

Cerebrospinal Fluid Features in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 and Neurological Manifestations: Correlation with Brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging Findings in 58 Patients.

BACKGROUND: Neurological manifestations are common in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), but little is known about pathophysiological mechanisms. In this single-center study, we examined neurological manifestations in 58 patients, including cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis and neuroimaging findings. METHODS: The study included 58 patients with COVID-19 and neurological manifestations in whom severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction screening and on CSF analysis were performed. Clinical, laboratory, and brain magnetic resonance (MR) imaging data were retrospectively collected and analyzed. RESULTS: Patients were mostly men (66%), with a median age of 62 years. Encephalopathy was frequent (81%), followed by pyramidal dysfunction (16%), seizures (10%), and headaches (5%). CSF protein and albumin levels were increased in 38% and 23%, respectively. A total of 40% of patients displayed an elevated albumin quotient, suggesting impaired blood-brain barrier integrity. CSF-specific immunoglobulin G oligoclonal band was found in 5 patients (11%), suggesting an intrathecal synthesis of immunoglobulin G, and 26 patients (55%) presented identical oligoclonal bands in serum and CSF. Four patients (7%) had a positive CSF SARS-CoV-2 reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Leptomeningeal enhancement was present on brain MR images in 20 patients (38%). CONCLUSIONS: Brain MR imaging abnormalities, especially leptomeningeal enhancement, and increased inflammatory markers in CSF are frequent in patients with neurological manifestations related to COVID-19, whereas SARS-CoV-2 detection in CSF remained scanty.

Revised version (INFD-D-20-00242): impact of 16S rDNA sequencing on clinical treatment decisions: a single center retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: PCRs targeting 16S ribosomal DNA (16S PCR) followed by Sanger's sequencing can identify bacteria from normally sterile sites and complement standard analyzes, but they are expensive. We conducted a retrospective study in the Strasbourg University Hospital to assess the clinical impact of 16S PCR sequencing on patients' treatments according to different sample types. METHODS: From 2014 to 2018, 806 16S PCR samples were processed, and 191 of those were positive. RESULTS: Overall, the test impacted the treatment of 62 of the 191 patients (32%). The antibiotic treatment was rationalized in 31 patients (50%) and extended in 24 patients (39%), and an invasive procedure was chosen for 7 patients (11%) due to the 16S PCR sequencing results. Positive 16S PCR sequencing results on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) had a greater impact on patients' management than positive ones on cardiac valves (p = 0.044). The clinical impact of positive 16S PCR sequencing results were significantly higher when blood cultures were negative (p < 0.001), and this difference appeared larger when both blood and sample cultures were negative (p < 0.001). The diagnostic contribution of 16S PCR was higher in patients with previous antibiotic treatment (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: In all, 16S PCR analysis has a significant clinical impact on patient management, particularly for suspected CSF infections, for patients with culture-negative samples and for those with previous antibiotic treatments.

Coronavirus disease 2019 in pregnancy was associated with maternal morbidity and preterm birth.

BACKGROUND: Despite the mainly reassuring outcomes for pregnant women with coronavirus disease 2019 reported by previous case series with small sample sizes, some recent reports of severe maternal morbidity requiring intubation and of maternal deaths show the need for additional data about the impact of coronavirus disease 2019 on pregnancy outcomes. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to report the maternal characteristics and clinical outcomes of pregnant women with coronavirus disease 2019. STUDY DESIGN: This retrospective, single-center study includes all consecutive pregnant women with confirmed (laboratory-confirmed) or suspected (according to the Chinese management guideline [version 7.0]) coronavirus disease 2019, regardless of gestational age at diagnosis, admitted to the Strasbourg University Hospital (France) from March 1, 2020, to April 3, 2020. Maternal characteristics, laboratory and imaging findings, and maternal and neonatal outcomes were extracted from medical records. RESULTS: The study includes 54 pregnant women with confirmed (n=38) and suspected (n=16) coronavirus disease 2019. Of these, 32 had an ongoing pregnancy, 1 had a miscarriage, and 21 had live births: 12 vaginal and 9 cesarean deliveries. Among the women who gave birth, preterm deliveries were medically indicated for their coronavirus disease 2019-related condition for 5 of 21 women (23.8%): 3 (14.3%) before 32 weeks' gestation and 2 (9.5%) before 28 weeks' gestation. Oxygen support was required for 13 of 54 women (24.1%), including high-flow oxygen (n=2), noninvasive (n=1) and invasive (n=3) mechanical ventilation, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (n=1). Of these, 3, aged 35 years or older with positive test result for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, had respiratory failure requiring indicated delivery before 29 weeks' gestation. All 3 women were overweight or obese, and 2 had an additional comorbidity. CONCLUSION: Coronavirus disease 2019 in pregnancy was associated with maternal morbidity and preterm birth. Its association with other well-known risk factors for severe maternal morbidity in pregnant women with no infection, including maternal age above 35 years, overweight, and obesity, suggests further studies are required to determine whether these risk factors are also associated with poorer maternal outcome in these women.

Virulence of beta-hemolytic streptococci in infective endocarditis.

BACKGROUND: Streptococci involved in infective endocarditis (IE) primarily comprise alpha- or non-hemolytic streptococci (ANHS). Moreover, beta-hemolytic streptococci (BHS) can be involved, and guidelines recommend the addition of gentamicin for the first 2 weeks of treatment and the consideration of early surgery in such cases. This study compared the morbidity and mortality associated with IE depending on the microorganisms involved (BHS, ANHS, staphylococci, and enterococci). METHODS: We conducted a retrospective observational study between 2012 and 2017 in a single hospital in France. The endpoints were overall in-hospital mortality, 1-year mortality and the occurrence of complications. RESULTS: We analyzed 316 episodes of definite IE including 150 (38%), 96 (25%), 46 (12%), and 24 cases (6%) of staphylococcal, ANHS, enterococcal, and BHS IE, respectively. In-hospital mortality was significantly higher in the staphylococcal (n = 40; 26.7%) and BHS groups (n = 6; 25.0%) than in the ANHS (n = 9; 9.4%) and enterococcal groups (n = 5; 10.9%) (all p < 0.01). The rates of septic shock and cerebral emboli were also higher in the BHS group than in the ANHS group [n = 7 (29.2%) vs. n = 3 (3.1%), p < 0.001; n = 7 (29.2%) vs. n = 12 (12.5%); p = 0.05, respectively]. CONCLUSION: This study confirmed that BHS IE has a more severe prognosis than ANHS IE. The virulence of BHS may be similar to that of staphylococci, justifying increased monitoring of these patients and more 'aggressive' treatments such as early surgery.

The diagnostic utility of the "Thwaites' system" and "lancet consensus scoring system" in tuberculous vs. non-tuberculous subacute and chronic meningitis: multicenter analysis of 395 adult patients.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculous meningitis (TBM) represents a diagnostic and management challenge to clinicians. The "Thwaites' system" and "Lancet consensus scoring system" are utilized to differentiate TBM from bacterial meningitis but their utility in subacute and chronic meningitis where TBM is an important consideration is unknown. METHODS: A multicenter retrospective study of adults with subacute and chronic meningitis, defined by symptoms greater than 5 days and less than 30 days for subacute meningitis (SAM) and greater than 30 days for chronic meningitis (CM). The "Thwaites' system" and "Lancet consensus scoring system" scores and the diagnostic accuracy by sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve of receiver operating curve (AUC-ROC) were calculated. The "Thwaites' system" and "Lancet consensus scoring system" suggest a high probability of TBM with scores ≤4, and with scores of ≥12, respectively. RESULTS: A total of 395 patients were identified; 313 (79.2%) had subacute and 82 (20.8%) with chronic meningitis. Patients with chronic meningitis were more likely caused by tuberculosis and had higher rates of HIV infection (P < 0.001). A total of 162 patients with TBM and 233 patients with non-TBM had unknown (140, 60.1%), fungal (41, 17.6%), viral (29, 12.4%), miscellaneous (16, 6.7%), and bacterial (7, 3.0%) etiologies. TMB patients were older and presented with lower Glasgow coma scores, lower CSF glucose and higher CSF protein (P < 0.001). Both criteria were able to distinguish TBM from bacterial meningitis; only the Lancet score was able to differentiate TBM from fungal, viral, and unknown etiologies even though significant overlap occurred between the etiologies (P < .001). Both criteria showed poor diagnostic accuracy to distinguish TBM from non-TBM etiologies (AUC-ROC was <. 5), but Lancet consensus scoring system was fair in diagnosing TBM (AUC-ROC was .738), sensitivity of 50%, and specificity of 89.3%. CONCLUSION: Both criteria can be helpful in distinguishing TBM from bacterial meningitis, but only the Lancet consensus scoring system can help differentiate TBM from meningitis caused by fungal, viral and unknown etiologies even though significant overlap occurs and the overall diagnostic accuracy of both criteria were either poor or fair.

Clinical characteristics and risk factors associated with severe COVID-19: prospective analysis of 1,045 hospitalised cases in North-Eastern France, March 2020.

BackgroundIn March 2020, the COVID-19 outbreak was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization.AimOur objective was to identify risk factors predictive of severe disease and death in France.MethodsIn this prospective cohort study, we included patients ≥ 18 years old with confirmed COVID-19, hospitalised in Strasbourg and Mulhouse hospitals (France), in March 2020. We respectively compared patients who developed severe disease (admission to an intensive care unit (ICU) or death) and patients who died, to those who did not, by day 7 after hospitalisation.ResultsAmong 1,045 patients, 424 (41%) had severe disease, including 335 (32%) who were admitted to ICU, and 115 (11%) who died. Mean age was 66 years (range: 20-100), and 612 (59%) were men. Almost 75% of patients with body mass index (BMI) data (n = 897) had a BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 (n = 661). Independent risk factors associated with severe disease were advanced age (odds ratio (OR): 1.1 per 10-year increase; 95% CrI (credible interval): 1.0-1.2), male sex (OR: 2.1; 95% CrI: 1.5-2.8), BMI of 25-29.9 kg/m2 (OR: 1.8; 95% CrI: 1.2-2.7) or ≥ 30 (OR: 2.2; 95% CrI: 1.5-3.3), dyspnoea (OR: 2.5; 95% CrI: 1.8-3.4) and inflammatory parameters (elevated C-reactive protein and neutrophil count, low lymphocyte count). Risk factors associated with death were advanced age (OR: 2.7 per 10-year increase; 95% CrI: 2.1-3.4), male sex (OR: 1.7; 95% CrI: 1.1-2.7), immunosuppression (OR: 3.8; 95% CrI: 1.6-7.7), diabetes (OR: 1.7; 95% CrI: 1.0-2.7), chronic kidney disease (OR: 2.3; 95% CrI: 1.3-3.9), dyspnoea (OR: 2.1; 95% CrI: 1.2-3.4) and inflammatory parameters.ConclusionsOverweightedness, obesity, advanced age, male sex, comorbidities, dyspnoea and inflammation are risk factors for severe COVID-19 or death in hospitalised patients. Identifying these features among patients in routine clinical practice might improve COVID-19 management.

Value of PCR, Serology, and Blood Smears for Human Granulocytic Anaplasmosis Diagnosis, France.

We prospectively examined the effectiveness of diagnostic tests for anaplasmosis using patients with suspected diagnoses in France. PCR (sensitivity 0.74, specificity 1) was the best-suited test. Serology had a lower specificity but higher sensitivity when testing acute and convalescent samples. PCR and serology should be used in combination for anaplasmosis diagnosis.

Tick-borne encephalitis virus: molecular determinants of neuropathogenesis of an emerging pathogen.

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a zoonotic agent causing severe encephalitis. The transmission cycle involves the virus, the Ixodes tick vector, and a vertebrate reservoir, such as small mammals (rodents, or shrews). Humans are accidentally involved in this transmission cycle. Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) has been a growing public health problem in Europe and Asia over the past 30 years. The mechanisms involved in the development of TBE are very complex and likely multifactorial, involving both host and viral factors. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the current literature on TBE neuropathogenesis in the human host and to demonstrate the emergence of common themes in the molecular pathogenesis of TBE in humans. We discuss and review data on experimental study models and on both viral (molecular genetics of TBEV) and host (immune response, and genetic background) factors involved in TBE neuropathogenesis in the context of human infection.

Portraying infective endocarditis: results of multinational ID-IRI study.

Infective endocarditis is a growing problem with many shifts due to ever-increasing comorbid illnesses, invasive procedures, and increase in the elderly. We performed this multinational study to depict definite infective endocarditis. Adult patients with definite endocarditis hospitalized between January 1, 2015, and October 1, 2018, were included from 41 hospitals in 13 countries. We included microbiological features, types and severity of the disease, complications, but excluded therapeutic parameters. A total of 867 patients were included. A total of 631 (72.8%) patients had native valve endocarditis (NVE), 214 (24.7%) patients had prosthetic valve endocarditis (PVE), 21 (2.4%) patients had pacemaker lead endocarditis, and 1 patient had catheter port endocarditis. Eighteen percent of NVE patients were hospital-acquired. PVE patients were classified as early-onset in 24.9%. A total of 385 (44.4%) patients had major embolic events, most frequently to the brain (n = 227, 26.3%). Blood cultures yielded pathogens in 766 (88.4%). In 101 (11.6%) patients, blood cultures were negative. Molecular testing of vegetations disclosed pathogens in 65 cases. Overall, 795 (91.7%) endocarditis patients had any identified pathogen. Leading pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus (n = 267, 33.6%), Streptococcus viridans (n = 149, 18.7%), enterococci (n = 128, 16.1%), coagulase-negative staphylococci (n = 92, 11.6%)) displayed substantial resistance profiles. A total of 132 (15.2%) patients had cardiac abscesses; 693 (79.9%) patients had left-sided endocarditis. Aortic (n = 394, 45.4%) and mitral valves (n = 369, 42.5%) were most frequently involved. Mortality was more common in PVE than NVE (NVE (n = 101, 16%), PVE (n = 49, 22.9%), p = 0.042).

Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci Pathogenomics.

Coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CoNS) are skin commensal bacteria. Besides their role in maintaining homeostasis, CoNS have emerged as major pathogens in nosocomial settings. Several studies have investigated the molecular basis for this emergence and identified multiple putative virulence factors with regards to Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity. In the last decade, numerous CoNS whole-genome sequences have been released, leading to the identification of numerous putative virulence factors. Koch's postulates and the molecular rendition of these postulates, established by Stanley Falkow in 1988, do not explain the microbial pathogenicity of CoNS. However, whole-genome sequence data has shed new light on CoNS pathogenicity. In this review, we analyzed the contribution of genomics in defining CoNS virulence, focusing on the most frequent and pathogenic CoNS species: S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus, S. saprophyticus, S. capitis, and S. lugdunensis.

[Epidemiology of Lyme borreliosis in France - both certainties and uncertainties]. / Épidémiologie de la borréliose de Lyme en France : entre incertitudes et certitudes.

Epidemiological evidence for tick-borne infections, particularly those related to Lyme borreliosis, is heterogeneous. Lyme borreliosis is a tick-born zoonosis transmitted by ticks of the genus Ixodes ricinus. After tick bite, the risk of transmission of an infectious agent remains low, most often represented by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato; co-infections in Humans by several different infectious agents (bacterial, viral or parasitic) are possible but a priori rare. In addition, besides well-known tick-borne pathogens, new species or gender of micro-organisms are regularly described in ticks but their pathogenicity in human pathology is not described or not yet established. The clinical presentation of Lyme borreliosis is varied, with localized and disseminated forms occurring long ago after tick bite, making diagnosis sometimes difficult. The natural course of Lyme borreliosis is insufficiently known because of recommendations of antibiotherapy in case of illness; however, some historical studies seem reassuring with possible spontaneous healing and seemingly minor sequelae. The diagnosis of disseminated forms requires paraclinical examinations, in first place serology, whose sensitivity increases with time of evolution of borreliosis; this is all the more interesting as the disseminated forms are of more difficult clinical diagnosis. After antibiotherapy, the clinical course is good, the sequelae remain possible especially in case of late diagnosis or late disseminated form; however, their frequency remains unknown.

Comparative genomic analysis of Staphylococcus lugdunensis shows a closed pan-genome and multiple barriers to horizontal gene transfer.

BACKGROUND: Coagulase negative staphylococci (CoNS) are commensal bacteria on human skin. Staphylococcus lugdunensis is a unique CoNS which produces various virulence factors and may, like S. aureus, cause severe infections, particularly in hospital settings. Unlike other staphylococci, it remains highly susceptible to antimicrobials, and genome-based phylogenetic studies have evidenced a highly conserved genome that distinguishes it from all other staphylococci. RESULTS: We demonstrate that S. lugdunensis possesses a closed pan-genome with a very limited number of new genes, in contrast to other staphylococci that have an open pan-genome. Whole-genome nucleotide and amino acid identity levels are also higher than in other staphylococci. We identified numerous genetic barriers to horizontal gene transfer that might explain this result. The S. lugdunensis genome has multiple operons encoding for restriction-modification, CRISPR/Cas and toxin/antitoxin systems. We also identified a new PIN-like domain-associated protein that might belong to a larger operon, comprising a metalloprotease, that could function as a new toxin/antitoxin or detoxification system. CONCLUSION: We show that S. lugdunensis has a unique genome profile within staphylococci, with a closed pan-genome and several systems to prevent horizontal gene transfer. Its virulence in clinical settings does not rely on its ability to acquire and exchange antibiotic resistance genes or other virulence factors as shown for other staphylococci.

Spondylodiscitis due to Aerococcus urinae and literature review.

INTRODUCTION: Aerococccus urinae (AU) is a pathogen mainly identified in male urinary tract infections and responsible for bacteremia and endocarditis. To the best of our knowledge, there are only five patients with osteomyelitis due to AU described in the literature. All of them had urinary tract disease or systemic conditions such as diabetes, and two were associated with an endocarditis. CASE REPORT: We described the first case of isolated spondylodiscitis without general or local predisposing condition, excepted age > 65 years.

Is Staphylococcus lugdunensis Significant in Clinical Samples?

The implication of coagulase-negative staphylococci in human diseases is a major issue, particularly in hospital settings wherein these species often act as opportunistic pathogens. In addition, some coagulase-negative staphylococci such as S. lugdunensis have emerged as pathogenic bacteria, implicated in severe infections, particularly, osteoarticular infections, foreign-body-associated infections, bacteremia, and endocarditis. In vitro studies have shown the presence of several putative virulence factors such as adhesion factors, biofilm production, and proteolytic factors that might explain clinical manifestations. Taken together, the clinical and microbiological data might change the way clinicians and microbiologists look at S. lugdunensis in clinical samples.