Sudden Cardiac Death in National Collegiate Athletic Association Athletes: A 20-Year Study.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the incidence, causes, and trends of sudden cardiac death (SCD) among young competitive athletes is critical to inform preventive policies. METHODS: This study included National Collegiate Athletic Association athlete deaths during a 20-year time frame (July 1, 2002, through June 30, 2022). Athlete deaths were identified through 4 separate independent databases and search strategies (National Collegiate Athletic Association resolutions list, Parent Heart Watch database and media reports, National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research database, and insurance claims). Autopsy reports and medical history were reviewed by an expert panel to adjudicate causes of SCD. RESULTS: A total of 143 SCD cases in National Collegiate Athletic Association athletes were identified from 1102 total deaths. The National Collegiate Athletic Association resolutions list identified 117 of 143 (82%), the Parent Heart Watch database or media reports identified 89 of 143 (62%), the National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research database identified 63 of 143 (44%), and insurance claims identified 27 of 143 (19%) SCD cases. The overall incidence of SCD was 1:63 682 athlete-years (95% CI, 1:54 065-1:75 010). Incidence was higher in male athletes than in female athletes (1:43 348 [95% CI, 1:36 228-1:51 867] versus 1:164 504 [95% CI, 1:110 552-1:244 787] athlete-years, respectively) and Black athletes compared with White athletes (1:26 704 [1:20 417-1:34 925] versus 1:74 581 [1:60 247-1:92 326] athlete-years, respectively). The highest incidence of SCD was among Division I male basketball players (1:8188 [White, 1:5848; Black, 1:7696 athlete-years]). The incidence rate for SCD decreased over the study period (5-year incidence rate ratio, 0.71 [95% CI, 0.61-0.82]), whereas the rate of noncardiovascular deaths remained stable (5-year incidence rate ratio, 0.98 [95% CI, 0.94-1.04]). Autopsy-negative sudden unexplained death (19.5%) was the most common postmortem examination finding, followed by idiopathic left ventricular hypertrophy or possible cardiomyopathy (16.9%) and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (12.7%), in cases with enough information for adjudication (118 of 143). Eight cases of death were attributable to myocarditis over the study period (1 case from January 1, 2020, through June 30, 2022), with none attributed to COVID-19 infection. SCD events were exertional in 50% of cases. Exertional SCD was more common among those with coronary artery anomalies (100%) and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (83%). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of SCD in college athletes has decreased. Male sex, Black race, and basketball are associated with a higher incidence of SCD.

Suicide in National Collegiate Athletic Association athletes: a 20-year analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the incidence rate of suicide from 2002 to 2022 among athletes from the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and assess for potential differences by, sex, race, division and sport. METHODS: NCAA athlete deaths over a 20-year period from 2002 to 2022 were identified. Poisson regression models were built to assess changes in incidence rates over time. Linear and quadratic fits between year and suicide incidence for males and females were evaluated. RESULTS: Of 1102 total deaths, 128 (11.6%) deaths by suicide were reported (male n=98, female n=30). The overall incidence was 1:71 145 athlete-years (AYs). Over the last decade, suicide was the second most common cause of death after accidents. The proportion of deaths by suicide doubled from the first 10 years (7.6%) to the second 10 years (15.3%). The suicide incidence rate for males increased linearly (5-year incidence rate ratio 1.32 (95% CI 1.14 to 1.53)), whereas a quadratic association was identified among female athletes (p=0.002), with the incidence rate reaching its lowest point in females in 2010-2011 and increasing thereafter. Male cross-country athletes had the highest suicide incidence rate (1:29 815 AYs) and Division I and II athletes had a higher suicide incidence rate than Division III athletes. No significant differences in suicide incidence rates by sex, race or sport were identified. CONCLUSION: Deaths by suicide among NCAA athletes increased in both males and females throughout the 20-year study period, and suicide is now the second most common cause of death in this population. Greater suicide prevention efforts geared towards NCAA athletes are warranted.

Subsequent musculoskeletal injury after concussion in National Football League players.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether National Football League (NFL) players diagnosed with a concussion have an increased risk of injury after return to football. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study analysed the hazard of subsequent time-loss lower extremity (LEX) or any musculoskeletal injury among NFL players diagnosed with a concussion in 2015-2021 preseason or regular season games compared with: (1) all non-concussed players participating in the same game and (2) players with time-loss upper extremity injury. Cox proportional hazards models were adjusted for number of injuries and concussions in the prior year, player tenure and roster position. Additional models accounted for time lost from participation after concussion. RESULTS: There was no statistical difference in the hazards of LEX injury or any musculoskeletal injury among concussed players compared with non-concussed players, though concussed players had a slightly elevated hazard of injury (LEX injury: HR=1.12, 95% CI 0.90 to 1.41; any musculoskeletal injury: HR=1.08, 95% CI: 0.89 to 1.31). When comparing to players with upper extremity injuries, the hazard of injury for concussed players was not statistically different, though HRs suggested a lower injury risk among concussed players (LEX injury: HR=0.78, 95% CI: 0.60 to 1.02; any musculoskeletal injury: HR=0.82, 95% CI: 0.65 to 1.04). CONCLUSION: We found no statistical difference in the risk of subsequent injury among NFL players returning from concussion compared with non-concussed players in the same game or players returning from upper extremity injury. These results suggest deconditioning or other factors associated with lost participation time may explain subsequent injury risk in concussed players observed in some settings after return to play.

Beyond acute concussion assessment to office management: a systematic review informing the development of a Sport Concussion Office Assessment Tool (SCOAT6) for adults and children.

OBJECTIVES: To systematically review the scientific literature regarding the assessment of sport-related concussion (SRC) in the subacute phase (3-30 days) and provide recommendations for developing a Sport Concussion Office Assessment Tool (SCOAT6). DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, Cochrane CENTRAL, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science searched from 2001 to 2022. Data extracted included study design, population, definition of SRC diagnosis, outcome measure(s) and results. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: (1) Original research, cohort studies, case-control studies, diagnostic accuracy and case series with samples >10; (2) SRC; (3) screening/technology that assessed SRC in the subacute period and (4) low risk of bias (ROB). ROB was performed using adapted Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network criteria. Quality of evidence was evaluated using the Strength of Recommendation Taxonomy classification. RESULTS: Of 9913 studies screened, 127 met inclusion, assessing 12 overlapping domains. Results were summarised narratively. Studies of acceptable (81) or high (2) quality were used to inform the SCOAT6, finding sufficient evidence for including the assessment of autonomic function, dual gait, vestibular ocular motor screening (VOMS) and mental health screening. CONCLUSION: Current SRC tools have limited utility beyond 72 hours. Incorporation of a multimodal clinical assessment in the subacute phase of SRC may include symptom evaluation, orthostatic hypotension screen, verbal neurocognitive tests, cervical spine evaluation, neurological screen, Modified Balance Error Scoring System, single/dual task tandem gait, modified VOMS and provocative exercise tests. Screens for sleep disturbance, anxiety and depression are recommended. Studies to evaluate the psychometric properties, clinical feasibility in different environments and time frames are needed. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42020154787.

SARS-CoV-2 Cardiac Involvement in Young Competitive Athletes.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac involvement among hospitalized patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is common and associated with adverse outcomes. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and clinical implications of COVID-19 cardiac involvement in young competitive athletes. METHODS: In this prospective, multicenter, observational cohort study with data from 42 colleges and universities, we assessed the prevalence, clinical characteristics, and outcomes of COVID-19 cardiac involvement among collegiate athletes in the United States. Data were collected from September 1, 2020, to December 31, 2020. The primary outcome was the prevalence of definite, probable, or possible COVID-19 cardiac involvement based on imaging definitions adapted from the Updated Lake Louise Imaging Criteria. Secondary outcomes included the diagnostic yield of cardiac testing, predictors for cardiac involvement, and adverse cardiovascular events or hospitalizations. RESULTS: Among 19 378 athletes tested for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, 3018 (mean age, 20 years [SD, 1 year]; 32% female) tested positive and underwent cardiac evaluation. A total of 2820 athletes underwent at least 1 element of cardiac triad testing (12-lead ECG, troponin, transthoracic echocardiography) followed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) if clinically indicated. In contrast, primary screening CMR was performed in 198 athletes. Abnormal findings suggestive of SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement were detected by ECG (21 of 2999 [0.7%]), cardiac troponin (24 of 2719 [0.9%]), and transthoracic echocardiography (24 of 2556 [0.9%]). Definite, probable, or possible SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement was identified in 21 of 3018 (0.7%) athletes, including 15 of 2820 (0.5%) who underwent clinically indicated CMR (n=119) and 6 of 198 (3.0%) who underwent primary screening CMR. Accordingly, the diagnostic yield of CMR for SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement was 4.2 times higher for a clinically indicated CMR (15 of 119 [12.6%]) versus a primary screening CMR (6 of 198 [3.0%]). After adjustment for race and sex, predictors of SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement included cardiopulmonary symptoms (odds ratio, 3.1 [95% CI, 1.2, 7.7]) or at least 1 abnormal triad test result (odds ratio, 37.4 [95% CI, 13.3, 105.3]). Five (0.2%) athletes required hospitalization for noncardiac complications of COVID-19. During clinical surveillance (median follow-up, 113 days [interquartile range=90 146]), there was 1 (0.03%) adverse cardiac event, likely unrelated to SARS-CoV-2 infection. CONCLUSIONS: SARS-CoV-2 infection among young competitive athletes is associated with a low prevalence of cardiac involvement and a low risk of clinical events in short-term follow-up.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Infections and Reinfections Among Fully Vaccinated and Unvaccinated University Athletes-15 States, January-November 2021.

BACKGROUND: Limited data currently exist on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections among fully vaccinated persons or reinfections in college-aged populations. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) partnered with National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) institutions to analyze retrospective data and present characteristics of positive coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases among student athletes 18 years of age and older. METHODS: De-identified, individual-level data contributed by 21 universities on 1378 student athletes who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 from January through November 2021 (pre-Omicron) were examined to determine percentages of infection among unvaccinated, partially vaccinated, and fully vaccinated individuals (breakthrough infections) as well as reinfections. Comparisons by demographic characteristics and regions were also made to further characterize these infections. RESULTS: Among the 1378 student athletes positive for SARS-CoV-2, 1070 (77.6%) were infected when unvaccinated and 22.4% (n = 308) were infected after full vaccination. There was a significant difference between Black (14.7%, n = 40) and White (23.9%, n = 168) student athletes who experienced a SARS-CoV-2 infection after being fully vaccinated (P < .01). Proportions of infections among fully vaccinated individuals did not differ statistically by sex (p = 0.06). CONCLUSIONS: This article adds to the knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 infections among fully vaccinated individuals in college-aged populations. The level of infections among fully vaccinated student athletes indicates the need for maintaining precautions to prevent infection. Further study of COVID-19 vaccination, infection, and reinfection among the well-resourced and diverse population of student athletes might contribute further understanding of factors that play a role in health equity among young adults.

Prevalence and clinical implications of persistent or exertional cardiopulmonary symptoms following SARS-CoV-2 infection in 3597 collegiate athletes: a study from the Outcomes Registry for Cardiac Conditions in Athletes (ORCCA).

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence and clinical implications of persistent or exertional cardiopulmonary symptoms in young competitive athletes following SARS-CoV-2 infection. METHODS: This observational cohort study from the Outcomes Registry for Cardiac Conditions in Athletes included 3597 US collegiate athletes after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clinical characteristics, advanced diagnostic testing and SARS-CoV-2-associated sequelae were compared between athletes with persistent symptoms >3 weeks, exertional symptoms on return to exercise and those without persistent or exertional symptoms. RESULTS: Among 3597 athletes (mean age 20 years (SD, 1 year), 34% female), data on persistent and exertional symptoms were reported in 3529 and 3393 athletes, respectively. Persistent symptoms >3 weeks were present in 44/3529 (1.2%) athletes with 2/3529 (0.06%) reporting symptoms >12 weeks. Exertional cardiopulmonary symptoms were present in 137/3393 (4.0%) athletes. Clinical evaluation and diagnostic testing led to the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2-associated sequelae in 12/137 (8.8%) athletes with exertional symptoms (five cardiac involvement, two pneumonia, two inappropriate sinus tachycardia, two postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome and one pleural effusion). No SARS-CoV-2-associated sequelae were identified in athletes with isolated persistent symptoms. Of athletes with chest pain on return to exercise who underwent cardiac MRI (CMR), 5/24 (20.8%) had probable or definite cardiac involvement. In contrast, no athlete with exertional symptoms without chest pain who underwent CMR (0/20) was diagnosed with probable or definite SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement. CONCLUSION: Collegiate athletes with SARS-CoV-2 infection have a low prevalence of persistent or exertional symptoms on return to exercise. Exertional cardiopulmonary symptoms, specifically chest pain, warrant a comprehensive evaluation.

Diagnostic accuracy and reliability of sideline concussion evaluation: a prospective, case-controlled study in college athletes comparing newer tools and established tests.

OBJECTIVE: To assess diagnostic accuracy and reliability of sideline concussion tests in college athletes. METHODS: Athletes completed baseline concussion tests including Post-Concussion Symptom Scale, Standardised Assessment of Concussion (SAC), modified Balance Error Scoring System (m-BESS), King-Devick test and EYE-SYNC Smooth Pursuits. Testing was repeated in athletes diagnosed acutely with concussion and compared to a matched teammate without concussion. RESULTS: Data were collected on 41 concussed athletes and 41 matched controls. Test-retest reliability for symptom score and symptom severity assessed using control athletes was 0.09 (-0.70 to 0.88) and 0.08 (-1.00 to 1.00) (unweighted kappa). Intraclass correlations were SAC 0.33 (-0.02 to 0.61), m-BESS 0.33 (-0.2 to 0.60), EYE-SYNC Smooth Pursuit tangential variability 0.70 (0.50 to 0.83), radial variability 0.47 (0.19 to 0.69) and King-Devick test 0.71 (0.49 to 0.84). The maximum identified sensitivity/specificity of each test for predicting clinical concussion diagnosis was: symptom score 81%/94% (3-point increase), symptom severity score 91%/81% (3-point increase), SAC 44%/72% (2-point decline), m-BESS 40%/92% (5-point increase), King-Devick 85%/76% (any increase in time) and EYE-SYNC Smooth Pursuit tangential variability 48%/58% and radial variability 52%/61% (any increase). Adjusted area under the curve was: symptom score 0.95 (0.89, 0.99), symptom severity 0.95 (95% CI 0.88 to 0.99), SAC 0.66 (95% CI 0.54 to 0.79), m-BESS 0.71 (0.60, 0.83), King-Devick 0.78 (0.69, 0.87), radial variability 0.47 (0.34, 0.59), tangential variability 0.41 (0.30, 0.54) CONCLUSION: Test-retest reliability of most sideline concussion tests was poor in uninjured athletes, raising concern about the accuracy of these tests to detect new concussion. Symptom score/severity had the greatest sensitivity and specificity, and of the objective tests, the King-Devick test performed best.

Do 'pathologic' cardiac murmurs in adolescents identify structural heart disease? An evaluation of 15 141 active adolescents for conditions that put them at risk of sudden cardiac death.

OBJECTIVES: We assessed whether the presence and character of a cardiac murmur in adolescents were associated with structural heart disease that confers risk of sudden cardiac death (SCD). METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of 15 141 adolescents age 12-19 who underwent a heart screen with history, physical examination and ECG. Participants with any screening abnormality underwent an echocardiogram for the assessment of structural heart disease. Murmurs were classified as physiological or pathological according to standard clinical criteria, and participants with murmurs were compared with a comparison group without murmurs. The primary outcome was echocardiogram-detected structural heart disease associated with SCD. RESULTS: 905 participants with a cardiac murmur (mean age 15.8; 58% male) and 4333 participants without a murmur (comparison group; mean age 15.8; 55% male) had an echocardiogram to detect structural heart disease. 743 (82%) murmurs were described as physiological and 162 (18%) as pathological. Twenty-five (2.8%) participants with murmurs and 61 (1.4%) participants without murmurs had structural heart disease. Three (0.3%) participants in the murmur group were diagnosed with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) which was the only identified condition associated with SCD. Two participants with HCM had physiological murmurs, one had a pathological murmur, and all three had an abnormal ECG. The most common minor structural heart disease was bicuspid aortic valve in both the murmur (7; 0.8%) and comparison (20; 0.5%) groups. The positive predictive value of physiological versus pathological murmurs for identifying any structural heart disease was 2.4% versus 4.3% (p=0.21), respectively. The positive predictive value of having any murmur versus no murmur for identifying structural heart disease was 2.8% versus 1.4% (p=0.003), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In adolescents, the traditional classification of cardiac murmurs as 'physiologic' or 'pathologic' does not differentiate for structural heart disease that puts individuals at risk for SCD. We recommend ECG evaluation in all patients with a cardiac murmur found during preparticipation screening to increase detection of HCM.

Electrocardiographic findings in young competitive athletes during acute SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Initial guidelines recommended a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) in young competitive athletes following SARS-CoV-2 infection to screen for myocarditis. However, no data are available that detail ECG findings before and after SARS-CoV-2 infection in young athletes without clinical or imaging evidence of overt myocarditis. This study applied the International Criteria for ECG interpretation in a cohort of 378 collegiate athletes to compare ECG findings at baseline and during the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our results suggest that ECG changes can occur in the absence of definitive SARS-CoV-2 cardiac involvement in young competitive athletes.

Prevalence of Elevated Blood Pressure and Risk Factors for Hypertension in College Athletes.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the prevalence and risk factors for hypertension (HTN) in college athletes using the new (≥130/80 mm Hg) versus prior (≥140/90 mm Hg) US hypertension guidelines. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Eleven Pacific-12 Conference institutions. PARTICIPANTS: Of the 8602 athletes enrolled in the primary study, 4977 (57.9%) met inclusion criteria. Athletes were included in the study if age <30 and blood pressure (BP), baseline demographics (age, weight, height, sex, and race), and primary sport were available. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: Age, sex, race, height, weight, body mass index, and primary sport. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Elevated BP of ≥130/80 mm Hg and/or ≥140/90 mm Hg. RESULTS: Normal BP (<130/80) was present in 3214 (64.6%) athletes and 1763 (35.4%) had BP ≥ 130/80, including 460 (9.2%) with BP ≥ 140/90. Male athletes had a higher prevalence of BP ≥ 130/80 (46.7% vs 21.5%; P < 0.001) and BP ≥ 140/90 (14.2% vs 3.1%; P < 0.001) compared to female athletes. Independent risk factors from multivariate analyses for BP ≥ 130/80 included: older age (odds ratio [OR] = 1.05, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.00-1.11, P = 0.04), male sex (OR = 1.97, 95% CI 1.65-2.35, P < 0.001), heavier weight (OR = 1.03, 95% CI 1.02-1.03, P < 0.001), and baseball as the primary sport (OR = 1.47, 95% CI 1.14-1.90, P < 0.01). Independent risk factors for BP ≥ 140/90 mm Hg included: male sex (OR = 3.54, 95% CI 2.55-4.97, P < 0.001) and heavier weight (OR = 1.03, 95% CI 1.02-1.04, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In a large, diverse cohort of matriculating college athletes from multiple institutions, over one-third presented with elevated BP ≥ 130/80 mm Hg, which was more common in older male athletes with larger body size and baseball players.

ACSM-AMSSM Call to Action: Adapting Preparticipation Cardiovascular Screening to the COVID-19 Pandemic.

ABSTRACT: Preparticipation cardiovascular screening, designed to identify cardiovascular pathology responsible for sudden unexpected death, is recommended by all major professional medical organizations overseeing the clinical care of competitive athletes. Data from several large, prospective, cohort studies indicate that cardiac imaging findings consistent with inflammatory heart disease following COVID-19 infection are more common than most forms of heart disease associated with sudden death during exercise. This call-to-action document is intended to provide recommendations about how routine preparticipation cardiovascular screening for young competitive athletes - which has the capacity to detect both COVID-19 cardiovascular complications and pathology unrelated to infection - should be altered to account for recent scientific advances.

Time from Start of Quarantine to SARS-CoV-2 Positive Test Among Quarantined College and University Athletes - 17 States, June-October 2020.

To safely resume sports, college and university athletic programs and regional athletic conferences created plans to mitigate transmission of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Mitigation measures included physical distancing, universal masking, and maximizing outdoor activity during training; routine testing; 10-day isolation of persons with COVID-19; and 14-day quarantine of athletes identified as close contacts* of persons with confirmed COVID-19. Regional athletic conferences created testing and quarantine policies based on National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) guidance (1); testing policies varied by conference, school, and sport. To improve compliance with quarantine and reduce the personal and economic burden of quarantine adherence, the quarantine period has been reduced in several countries from 14 days to as few as 5 days with testing (2) or 10 days without testing (3). Data on quarantined athletes participating in NCAA sports were used to characterize COVID-19 exposures and assess the amount of time between quarantine start and first positive SARS-CoV-2 test result. Despite the potential risk for transmission from frequent, close contact associated with athletic activities (4), more athletes reported exposure to COVID-19 at social gatherings (40.7%) and from roommates (31.7%) than they did from exposures associated with athletic activities (12.7%). Among 1,830 quarantined athletes, 458 (25%) received positive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) test results during the 14-day quarantine, with a mean of 3.8 days from quarantine start (range = 0-14 days) until the positive test result. Among athletes who had not received a positive test result by quarantine day 5, the probability of having a positive test result decreased from 27% after day 5 to <5% after day 10. These findings support new guidance from CDC (5) in which different options are provided to shorten quarantine for persons such as collegiate athletes, especially if doing so will increase compliance, balancing the reduced duration of quarantine against a small but nonzero risk for postquarantine transmission. Improved adherence to mitigation measures (e.g., universal masking, physical distancing, and hand hygiene) at all times could further reduce exposures to SARS-CoV-2 and disruptions to athletic activities because of infections and quarantine (1,6).

Return to play with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: are we moving too fast? A critical review.

The diagnosis of a potentially lethal cardiovascular disease in a young athlete presents a complex dilemma regarding athlete safety, patient autonomy, team or institutional risk tolerance and medical decision-making. Consensus cardiology recommendations previously supported the 'blanket' disqualification of athletes with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) from competitive sport. More recently, epidemiological studies examining the relative contribution of HCM as a cause of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in young athletes and reports from small cohorts of older athletes with HCM that continue to exercise have fueled debate whether it is safe to play with HCM. Shared decision-making is endorsed within the sports cardiology community in which athletes can make an informed decision about treatment options and potentially elect to continue competitive sports participation. This review critically examines the available evidence relevant to sports eligibility decisions in young athletes diagnosed with HCM. Histopathologically, HCM presents an unstable myocardial substrate that is vulnerable to ventricular tachyarrhythmias during exercise. Studies support that young age and intense competitive sports are risk factors for SCD in patients with HCM. We provide an estimate of annual mortality based on our understanding of disease prevalence and the incidence of HCM-related SCD in different athlete populations. Adolescent and young adult male athletes and athletes participating in a higher risk sport such as basketball, soccer and American football exhibit a greater risk. This review explores the potential harms and benefits of sports disqualification in athletes with HCM and details the challenges and limitations of shared decision-making when all parties may not agree.

Aetiology and incidence of sudden cardiac arrest and death in young competitive athletes in the USA: a 4-year prospective study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the aetiology and incidence of sudden cardiac arrest and death (SCA/D) in US competitive athletes. METHODS: Prospective surveillance was conducted from 1 July 2014 to 30 June 2018 through the National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research in collaboration with national sports organisations. Autopsy reports, death certificates, and medical records were reviewed by an expert panel to determine aetiology. Athlete participation statistics from the National Federation of State High School Associations and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) were used to calculate incidence rates per athlete-years (AY). Comparisons of incidence rates were calculated using incidence rate ratios (IRR) with 95% CIs. RESULTS: 331 cases of confirmed SCA/D (158 survivors; 173 fatalities) were identified; 15.4% in middle school, 61.6% in high school and 16.6% in college and professional athletes. Average age was 16.7 (11-29) years, and the majority were in male (83.7%), basketball (28.7%) or American football (25.4%) athletes. Common causes included hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (20.6%), idiopathic left ventricular hypertrophy (13.4%), coronary artery anomalies (12.0%) and autopsy-negative sudden unexplained death (9.6%). Coronary anomalies were more common in middle school athletes (28%), while cardiomyopathies (hypertrophic, arrhythmogenic, dilated, non-compaction or restricted) accounted for 47% of cases in college and professional athletes. Incidence was higher in male versus female athletes at the high school (1:43 932 AY (95% CI 1:38 101 to 1:50 907) vs 1:203 786 AY (95% CI 1:145 251 to 1:293 794); IRR 4.6 (95% CI 3.1 to 7.2)) and NCAA (1:34 906 AY (95% CI 1:25 385 to 1:49 173) vs 1:123 278 AY (95% CI 1:66 078 to 1:249 853); IRR 3.5 (95% CI 1.5 to 9.5)) levels. African American male NCAA Division I basketball players had the highest annual incidence rate of SCA/D (1:2087 AY (95% CI 1:1073 to 1:4 450)). CONCLUSIONS: Cardiomyopathies account for nearly half of SCA/D cases in college and professional athletes, while coronary artery anomalies play a more prominent role than expected in middle school athletes. Over half of SCA cases in athletes result in sudden death, calling for improved prevention strategies.

American Medical Society for Sports Medicine Position Statement: Principles for the Responsible Use of Regenerative Medicine in Sports Medicine.

ABSTRACT: Many sports medicine physicians are currently considering introducing regenerative medicine into their practice. Regenerative medicine and the subclassification of orthobiologics are a complicated topic and have produced widely varying opinions. Although there is concern by government regulators, clinicians, scientists, patient advocacy organizations, and the media regarding the use of regenerative medicine products, there is also excitement about the potential benefits with growing evidence that certain regenerative medicine products are safe and potentially efficacious in treating musculoskeletal conditions. Sports medicine physicians would benefit from decision-making guidance about whether to introduce orthobiologics into their practice and how to do it responsibly. The purpose of this position statement is to provide sports medicine physicians with information regarding regenerative medicine terminology, a brief review of basic science and clinical studies within the subclassification of orthobiologics, regulatory considerations, and best practices for introducing regenerative medicine into clinical practice. This information will help sports medicine physicians make informed and responsible decisions about the role of regenerative medicine and orthobiologics in their practice.

What Do Parents Need to Know About Concussion? Developing Consensus Using the Delphi Method.

OBJECTIVE: Many schools and sports leagues provide preseason concussion education to parents/guardians, and in some jurisdictions, it is required for interscholastic sports participation. However, directives about content are absent or vague. The purpose of this study was to obtain expert consensus about what parents/guardians need to know to about concussion. DESIGN: A modified Delphi process with nationally recognized expert panel members was used to obtain consensus about parent/guardian behaviors relevant to concussion prevention, identification, and management and knowledge domains relevant to performance of those behaviors. RESULTS: Sixteen parent/guardian behaviors and 24 knowledge domains were identified. However, consensus was not achieved regarding whether it is realistic to expect parents/guardians to perform approximately one-third of the behaviors that experts agreed mattered. This variability may reflect underlying uncertainty about the capacities of some parents/guardians to put knowledge into action or the belief that there are other barriers to action. Furthermore, for most knowledge domains, there was a lack of agreement about whether or not there could be a "correct" answer on the basis of current scientific knowledge. CONCLUSIONS: These findings raise practical and ethical questions: how can we expect parents/guardians to help prevent, identify, or manage concussion if they cannot have all the information required to engage in these behaviors due to lack of scientific consensus? This issue is not unique to concussion. Best practices for risk communication and shared decision-making can inform how we think about educating parents/guardians about concussion inside and outside of the health care setting.

Summit on Exercise Collapse Associated with Sickle Cell Trait: Finding the "Way Ahead".

ABSTRACT: Although largely benign, sickle cell trait (SCT) has been associated with exertion-related events, to include sudden death. In 2011, a summit on SCT introduced the term exercise collapse associated with SCT (ECAST). A series of ECAST deaths in military personnel in 2019 prompted reevaluation of current efforts and led to a second summit in October 2019 hosted by the Consortium for Health and Military Performance of the Uniformed Services University in Bethesda, MD. The goals were to (1) review current service policies on SCT screening, (2) develop draft procedural instructions for executing current policy on SCT within the Department of Defense, (3) develop draft clinical practice guidelines for management of ECAST, (4) establish a framework for education on SCT and ECAST, and (5) prepare a research agenda to address identified gaps.

Electrocardiogram interpretation in college athletes: Local institution versus sports cardiology center interpretation.

BACKGROUND: Electrocardiogram (ECG) screening in athletes enhances the detection of conditions associated with sudden cardiac death (SCD), but concerns remain for false positive results when conducted outside of specialized centers. This study compared ECG interpretation in college athletes between local physicians and a sports cardiology center (SCC). METHODS: Screening ECGs in athletes from eight Pacific-12 Conference institutions performed between 2010 and 2016 were included. Local interpretation was compared to SCC interpretation using both the Seattle Criteria (SCC-SC) and the International Criteria (SCC-IC). RESULTS: A total of 2445 athlete ECGs (mean age 18.5 years; 57.1% male; 63.2% Caucasian and 15.3% African American) were reviewed. The proportion of ECGs classified as abnormal was similar between local and SCC-SC interpretation (3.5% vs. 3.4%, respectively; p = .94), but was lower by SCC-IC interpretation (1.5%, p < .001). ECG abnormalities interpreted as normal by local physicians but as abnormal by SCC-SC (n = 33) and SCC-IC (n = 16) standards included: pathological Q waves (n = 15 SCC-SC; n = 3 SCC-IC), T-wave inversions (n = 8 both), and ST-depressions (n = 3 both). There was a 97.5% ECG interpretation agreement and substantial interobserver reliability (k = 0.611, p < .001) between local and SCC-SC interpretation in athletes screened starting one year after publication of the Seattle Criteria (n = 1388). Both local and SCC physicians correctly identified six abnormal ECGs associated with conditions at risk of SCD. CONCLUSIONS: ECG interpretation by local physicians at college universities had similar accuracy compared to a specialized SCC with a low overall abnormal rate, similar sensitivity, and substantial interobserver reliability. Uniform application of current ECG interpretation standards is recommended to further improve accuracy.