Extracellular Vesicle and Particle Biomarkers Define Multiple Human Cancers.

There is an unmet clinical need for improved tissue and liquid biopsy tools for cancer detection. We investigated the proteomic profile of extracellular vesicles and particles (EVPs) in 426 human samples from tissue explants (TEs), plasma, and other bodily fluids. Among traditional exosome markers, CD9, HSPA8, ALIX, and HSP90AB1 represent pan-EVP markers, while ACTB, MSN, and RAP1B are novel pan-EVP markers. To confirm that EVPs are ideal diagnostic tools, we analyzed proteomes of TE- (n = 151) and plasma-derived (n = 120) EVPs. Comparison of TE EVPs identified proteins (e.g., VCAN, TNC, and THBS2) that distinguish tumors from normal tissues with 90% sensitivity/94% specificity. Machine-learning classification of plasma-derived EVP cargo, including immunoglobulins, revealed 95% sensitivity/90% specificity in detecting cancer. Finally, we defined a panel of tumor-type-specific EVP proteins in TEs and plasma, which can classify tumors of unknown primary origin. Thus, EVP proteins can serve as reliable biomarkers for cancer detection and determining cancer type.

Identification and variation of a new restorer of fertility gene that induces cleavage in orf138 mRNA of Ogura male sterility in radish.

KEY MESSAGE: A new restorer of fertility gene, Rfs, of Ogura cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) in radish encodes a pentatricopeptide repeat protein that binds to 15 nucleotides in mRNA of the CMS gene, orf138. Nucleotide substitutions in both Rfs and orf138 determine effectiveness and specificity of restoration. Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) in plants caused by the expression of abnormal mitochondrial genes results from impaired pollen production. The manifestation of CMS is suppressed by the restorer of fertility (Rf) genes in the nuclear genome. Thus, the CMS-Rf system is a suitable model for studying the direct interactions of mitochondrial and nuclear genes. At least nine haplotypes, of which Type B is ancestry, have been reported for the Ogura CMS gene, orf138, in radish (Raphanus sativus). We previously observed that Rfo encoding a pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) protein, ORF687, which inhibits the translation of orf138 is ineffective in one haplotype (i.e., Type H). Here, we carried out map-based cloning of another Rf gene (Rfs) that cleaves the orf138 mRNA of Type H. Rfs produces a PPR protein consisting of 15 PPR motifs that binds to the mRNA, cleaving the mRNA at about 50nt downstream of the binding site. However, Rfs was ineffective for Type A because of a single nucleotide substitution in the binding site. Both Rfo and Rfs suppress orf138 expression in ancestral Type B, but they are rendered ineffective in Type H and Type A, respectively, by a single nucleotide substitution in orf138.

A compound eye-like morphology formed through hexagonal array of hemispherical microparticles where an alkyl-fullerene derivative self-assembled at atmosphere-sealed air/water interface.

Self-assembly processes are widely used in nature to form hierarchically organized structures, prompting us to investigate such processes at the macroscopic scale. We report an unprecedented approach toward the self-assembly of alkyl-fullerene (C60) derivatives into a hexagonal array of hemispherical microparticles akin to the morphology of a compound eye. The method includes casting solvated alkyl-C60compound on an air/water interface followed by controlled evaporation of the solvent under atmosphere-sealed conditions. This leads to the formation of a thin film floating on water with a diameter of up to 1.3 centimeters and exhibiting a hexagonally-packed hemispherical structure with a diameter of approximately 38µm. Various measurements of the formed film reveal that amorphousness is necessary for suppressing uncontrollable crystallization, which affects the microparticle size and film formation mechanism. We tested the feasibility of this approach for the self-assembly of a relatively common C60derivative, [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PC61BM), resulting in the formation of a film with a similar pattern of hexagonally-packed larger microparticles approximately 152µm in size of diameter.

Phase textures of metal-oxide nanocomposites self-orchestrated by atomic diffusions through precursor alloys.

Metal-oxide nanocomposites (MONs) are of pivotal importance as electrode materials, yet lack a guiding principle to tune their phase texture. Here we report that the phase texture of MONs can be tuned at the nanoscale by controlling the nanophase separation of precursor alloys. In situ transmission electron microscopy (in situ TEM) has demonstrated that a MON material of platinum (Pt) and cerium oxide (CeO2) is obtained through promoted nanophase separation of a Pt5Ce precursor alloy in an atmosphere containing oxygen (O2) and carbon monoxide (CO). The Pt-CeO2 MON material comprised an alternating stack of nanometre-thick layers of Pt and CeO2 in different phase textures ranging from lamellae to mazes, depending on the O2 fraction in the atmosphere. Mathematical simulations have demonstrated that the phase texture of MONs originates from a balance in the atomic diffusions across the alloy precursor, which is controllable by the O2 fraction, temperature, and composition of the precursor alloys.

Clinical characteristics and outcomes of women with adenomyosis pain during pregnancy: a retrospective study.

OBJECTIVES: Adenomyosis is associated with unfavorable perinatal outcomes, and recent case reports show that some women with adenomyosis experience pain at the adenomyosis lesion during pregnancy and have detrimental perinatal outcomes. This study aimed to clarify the clinical characteristics of this pain and perinatal outcomes associated with this phenomenon. METHODS: This was a single-center retrospective analysis of pregnant women with adenomyosis. The incidence of pain onset at adenomyosis lesions, defined as persistent pain at the adenomyosis site with administration of analgesics for pain relief, and its association with perinatal outcomes were analyzed. RESULTS: Among 91 singleton pregnancies with adenomyosis, 12 pregnancies (13.2 %) presented with pain. One pregnancy resulted in second-trimester miscarriage, and 5 of the 11 pregnancies (45 %) developed preeclampsia, which resulted in preterm delivery, and 3 of the 12 pregnancies (25 %) achieved term delivery. The incidence of preeclampsia and preterm delivery was higher in those who experienced pain than in those without (45 % [5/11] vs. 15 % [11/74]; p<0.05, and 73 % [8/11] vs. 34 % [25/74]; p<0.05, respectively). Among women with pain, the maximum C-reactive protein level was significantly higher in women who developed preeclampsia than in those who did not (5.45 vs. 0.12 mg/dL, p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our study revealed that adenomyosis can cause pain in over one of eight pregnancies with adenomyosis, which may be associated with the increased incidence of preeclampsia resulting in preterm delivery. Women with pain, especially those with high C-reactive protein levels, may be at high risk for future development of preeclampsia and consequent preterm delivery.

Increased risk of placenta previa and preterm birth in pregnant women with endometriosis/adenomyosis: A propensity-score matching analysis of a nationwide perinatal database in Japan.

AIM: We aimed to investigate the associations of endometriosis and adenomyosis with pregnancy complications by using a large-scale Japanese database. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed 145 590 singleton pregnancies from the Japan Perinatal Registry Network Database. Pregnant women registered as having endometriosis or adenomyosis were designated as the case group (EA), whereas the control group (non-EA) was selected using propensity-score matching adjusted for variables such as age, parity, BMI, smoking history, and the use of assisted reproductive technology. The main outcomes included placental malposition, preterm birth, and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP). RESULTS: In total, 1203 patients from both the EA and non-EA groups were matched and evaluated. The EA group showed significantly higher rates of placenta previa (odds ratio [OR], 3.01; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.84-4.92), low-lying placenta (OR, 2.02; 95% CI, 1.06-3.86), and preterm birth (OR, 1.44; 95% CI, 1.13-1.84) than the non-EA group. However, no significant difference was observed in the incidence of HDP (OR, 1.22; 95% CI, 0.90-1.66). CONCLUSION: The use of propensity-score matching to analyze a nationwide perinatal database in Japan clarified that EA was associated with increased pregnancy complications, specifically placental malposition, including placenta previa and low-lying placenta, and preterm birth, but not with HDP.

The Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Roles of Zinc Transporters in Zinc Homeostasis and Metabolism.

Zinc is involved in a variety of biological processes, as a structural, catalytic, and intracellular and intercellular signaling component. Thus zinc homeostasis is tightly controlled at the whole body, tissue, cellular, and subcellular levels by a number of proteins, with zinc transporters being particularly important. In metazoan, two zinc transporter families, Zn transporters (ZnT) and Zrt-, Irt-related proteins (ZIP) function in zinc mobilization of influx, efflux, and compartmentalization/sequestration across biological membranes. During the last two decades, significant progress has been made in understanding the molecular properties, expression, regulation, and cellular and physiological roles of ZnT and ZIP transporters, which underpin the multifarious functions of zinc. Moreover, growing evidence indicates that malfunctioning zinc homeostasis due to zinc transporter dysfunction results in the onset and progression of a variety of diseases. This review summarizes current progress in our understanding of each ZnT and ZIP transporter from the perspective of zinc physiology and pathogenesis, discussing challenging issues in their structure and zinc transport mechanisms.

A single nucleotide substitution in the coding region of Ogura male sterile gene, orf138, determines effectiveness of a fertility restorer gene, Rfo, in radish.

Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) observed in many plants leads defect in the production of functional pollen, while the expression of CMS is suppressed by a fertility restorer gene in the nuclear genome. Ogura CMS of radish is induced by a mitochondrial orf138, and a fertility restorer gene, Rfo, encodes a P-type PPR protein, ORF687, acting at the translational level. But, the exact function of ORF687 is still unclear. We found a Japanese variety showing male sterility even in the presence of Rfo. We examined the pollen fertility, Rfo expression, and orf138 mRNA in progenies of this variety. The progeny with Type H orf138 and Rfo showed male sterility when their orf138 mRNA was unprocessed within the coding region. By contrast, all progeny with Type A orf138 were fertile though orf138 mRNA remained unprocessed in the coding region, demonstrating that ORF687 functions on Type A but not on Type H. In silico analysis suggested a specific binding site of ORF687 in the coding region, not the 5' untranslated region estimated previously, of Type A. A single nucleotide substitution in the putative binding site diminishes affinity of ORF687 in Type H and is most likely the cause of the ineffectiveness of ORF687. Furthermore, fertility restoration by RNA processing at a novel site in some progeny plants indicated a new and the third fertility restorer gene, Rfs, for orf138. This study clarified that direct ORF687 binding to the coding region of orf138 is essential for fertility restoration by Rfo.

Intraspecific variations of the cytoplasmic male sterility genes orf108 and orf117 in Brassica maurorum and Moricandia arvensis, and the specificity of the mRNA processing.

The mitochondrial gene orf108, which is co-transcribed with atp1 and causes cytoplasmic male sterility in Brassica crops, is widely distributed across wild species and genera of Brassicaceae. However, to date, intraspecific variations in the presence of orf108 have not yet been studied, and the mechanisms underlying the wide distribution of the gene remain unclear. We analyzed the presence and sequence variations of orf108 in two wild species, Brassica maurorum and Moricandia arvensis. After polymerase chain reaction amplification of the 5' region of atp1 and the coding sequence of orf108, we determined the DNA sequences. Brassica maurorum and M. arvensis showed variations in the presence of orf108 or orf117 (orf108V117) both between and within accessions and were not fixed to the mitochondrial type with the male sterile genes. Sequencing of the amplicons showed that B. maurorum had orf108V117 instead of orf108. Sequencing also indicated mitochondrial heteroplasmy in the two species; in particular, in B. maurorum, one plant possessed both orf108 and orf108V117 sequences. These results suggest that substoichiometric shifting of mitochondrial genomes leads to the acquisition or loss of orf108. Furthermore, fertility restorer genes of the two species were involved in the processing of the mRNA of male sterility genes at different sites.

Tumour exosome integrins determine organotropic metastasis.

Ever since Stephen Paget's 1889 hypothesis, metastatic organotropism has remained one of cancer's greatest mysteries. Here we demonstrate that exosomes from mouse and human lung-, liver- and brain-tropic tumour cells fuse preferentially with resident cells at their predicted destination, namely lung fibroblasts and epithelial cells, liver Kupffer cells and brain endothelial cells. We show that tumour-derived exosomes uptaken by organ-specific cells prepare the pre-metastatic niche. Treatment with exosomes from lung-tropic models redirected the metastasis of bone-tropic tumour cells. Exosome proteomics revealed distinct integrin expression patterns, in which the exosomal integrins α6ß4 and α6ß1 were associated with lung metastasis, while exosomal integrin αvß5 was linked to liver metastasis. Targeting the integrins α6ß4 and αvß5 decreased exosome uptake, as well as lung and liver metastasis, respectively. We demonstrate that exosome integrin uptake by resident cells activates Src phosphorylation and pro-inflammatory S100 gene expression. Finally, our clinical data indicate that exosomal integrins could be used to predict organ-specific metastasis.

Appearance of male sterile and black radishes in the progeny of cross between Raphanus raphanistrum and Raphanus sativus.

In addition to Ogura cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS), which is used extensively for F1 hybrid seed production in Brassicaceae crops, two other CMS systems, NWB CMS and DCGMS, have also been identified. The causal gene for the latter two CMS systems has been identified as a novel chimeric gene, orf463. We previously reported that orf463 is specific to black radish cultivars and that it is present in line 'RS-5' of Raphanus raphanistrum; however, the orf463 sequence in 'RS-5' differed from that of black radish cultivars. Though, R. raphanistrum with an orf463 sequence identical to that found in black radish cultivars was recently identified. We therefore sought to determine whether the orf463 gene in line 'RS-5' induces CMS in radishes. We crossed 'RS-5' as a female parent with a cultivated radish, 'Uchiki-Gensuke', as a male parent, and examined the gross plant morphology and pollen fertility of the resulting progeny. The F2 population contained both male sterile plants and plants with black roots. The findings showed that R. raphanistrum contains two types of orf463 genes that induce CMS, and that the origin of black radishes could be attributed to R. raphanistrum having orf463 gene.

Phospholipid methylation controls Atg32-mediated mitophagy and Atg8 recycling.

Degradation of mitochondria via selective autophagy, termed mitophagy, contributes to mitochondrial quality and quantity control whose defects have been implicated in oxidative phosphorylation deficiency, aberrant cell differentiation, and neurodegeneration. How mitophagy is regulated in response to cellular physiology remains obscure. Here, we show that mitophagy in yeast is linked to the phospholipid biosynthesis pathway for conversion of phosphatidylethanolamine to phosphatidylcholine by the two methyltransferases Cho2 and Opi3. Under mitophagy-inducing conditions, cells lacking Opi3 exhibit retardation of Cho2 repression that causes an anomalous increase in glutathione levels, leading to suppression of Atg32, a mitochondria-anchored protein essential for mitophagy. In addition, loss of Opi3 results in accumulation of phosphatidylmonomethylethanolamine (PMME) and, surprisingly, generation of Atg8-PMME, a mitophagy-incompetent lipid conjugate of the autophagy-related ubiquitin-like modifier. Amelioration of Atg32 expression and attenuation of Atg8-PMME conjugation markedly rescue mitophagy in opi3-null cells. We propose that proper regulation of phospholipid methylation is crucial for Atg32-mediated mitophagy.

Reversible low-temperature redox activity and selective oxidation catalysis derived from the concerted activation of multiple metal species on Cr and Rh-incorporated ceria catalysts.

The ceria-based catalyst incorporated with Cr and a trace amount of Rh (Cr0.19Rh0.06CeOz) was prepared and the reversible redox performances and oxidation catalysis of CO and alcohol derivatives with O2 at low temperatures (<373 K) were investigated. In situ X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS), ambient-pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (AP-XPS), high angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM)-EDS/EELS and temperature-programmed reduction/oxidation (TPR/TPO) revealed the structures and redox mechanisms of three metals in Cr0.19Rh0.06CeOz: dispersed Rh3+δ species (<1 nm) and Cr6-γO3-x nanoparticles (∼1 nm) supported on CeO2 in Cr0.19Rh0.06CeOz were transformed to Rh nanoclusters, Cr(OH)3 species and CeO2-x with two Ce3+-oxide layers at the surface in a concerted activation manner of the three metal species with H2.

The Effect of Cage Shape on Nanoparticle-Based Drug Carriers: Anticancer Drug Release and Efficacy via Receptor Blockade Using Dextran-Coated Iron Oxide Nanocages.

Although a range of nanoparticles have been developed as drug delivery systems in cancer therapeutics, this approach faces several important challenges concerning nanocarrier circulation, clearance, and penetration. The impact of reducing nanoparticle size on penetration through leaky blood vessels around tumor microenvironments via enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect has been extensively examined. Recent research has also investigated the effect of nanoparticle shape on circulation and target binding affinity. However, how nanoparticle shape affects drug release and therapeutic efficacy has not been previously explored. Here, we compared the drug release and efficacy of iron oxide nanoparticles possessing either a cage shape (IO-NCage) or a solid spherical shape (IO-NSP). Riluzole cytotoxicity against metastatic cancer cells was enhanced 3-fold with IO-NCage. The shape of nanoparticles (or nanocages) affected the drug release point and cellular internalization, which in turn influenced drug efficacy. Our study provides evidence that the shape of iron oxide nanoparticles has a significant impact on drug release and efficacy.

Properties of Zip4 accumulation during zinc deficiency and its usefulness to evaluate zinc status: a study of the effects of zinc deficiency during lactation.

Systemic and cellular zinc homeostasis is elaborately controlled by ZIP and ZnT zinc transporters. Therefore, detailed characterization of their expression properties is of importance. Of these transporter proteins, Zip4 functions as the primarily important transporter to control systemic zinc homeostasis because of its indispensable function of zinc absorption in the small intestine. In this study, we closely investigated Zip4 protein accumulation in the rat small intestine in response to zinc status using an anti-Zip4 monoclonal antibody that we generated and contrasted this with the zinc-responsive activity of the membrane-bound alkaline phosphatase (ALP). We found that Zip4 accumulation is more rapid in response to zinc deficiency than previously thought. Accumulation increased in the jejunum as early as 1 day following a zinc-deficient diet. In the small intestine, Zip4 protein expression was higher in the jejunum than in the duodenum and was accompanied by reduction of ALP activity, suggesting that the jejunum can become zinc deficient more easily. Furthermore, by monitoring Zip4 accumulation levels and ALP activity in the duodenum and jejunum, we reasserted that zinc deficiency during lactation may transiently alter plasma glucose levels in the offspring in a sex-specific manner, without affecting homeostatic control of zinc metabolism. This confirms that zinc nutrition during lactation is extremely important for the health of the offspring. These results reveal that rapid Zip4 accumulation provides a significant conceptual advance in understanding the molecular basis of systemic zinc homeostatic control, and that properties of Zip4 protein accumulation are useful to evaluate zinc status closely.

Soybean extracts increase cell surface ZIP4 abundance and cellular zinc levels: a potential novel strategy to enhance zinc absorption by ZIP4 targeting.

Dietary zinc deficiency puts human health at risk, so we explored strategies for enhancing zinc absorption. In the small intestine, the zinc transporter ZIP4 functions as an essential component of zinc absorption. Overexpression of ZIP4 protein increases zinc uptake and thereby cellular zinc levels, suggesting that food components with the ability to increase ZIP4 could potentially enhance zinc absorption via the intestine. In the present study, we used mouse Hepa cells, which regulate mouse Zip4 (mZip4) in a manner indistinguishable from that in intestinal enterocytes, to screen for suitable food components that can increase the abundance of ZIP4. Using this ZIP4-targeting strategy, two such soybean extracts were identified that were specifically able to decrease mZip4 endocytosis in response to zinc. These soybean extracts also effectively increased the abundance of apically localized mZip4 in transfected polarized Caco2 and Madin-Darby canine kidney cells and, moreover, two apically localized mZip4 acrodermatitis enteropathica mutants. Soybean components were purified from one extract and soyasaponin Bb was identified as an active component that increased both mZip4 protein abundance and zinc levels in Hepa cells. Finally, we confirmed that soyasaponin Bb is capable of enhancing cell surface endogenous human ZIP4 in human cells. Our results suggest that ZIP4 targeting may represent a new strategy to improve zinc absorption in humans.

Chronic active EBV infection with features of granulomatosis with polyangiitis.

Herein, we report the case of a 13-year-old boy with multiple recurrent ulcers on his legs. He developed severe sinusitis at 10 years of age and had significant weight loss (6 kg) in the 2 months prior to admission. Histology of tissue biopsied from the ulcer indicated small vessel vasculitis and granulomatous inflammation. Given that these findings met the diagnostic criteria for granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA), he was treated with immunosuppressive agents. Further pathology, however, indicated Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded RNA (EBER) in most lymphocytes in the same sample. The EBER-positive lymphocytes were mainly CD4-positive T cells. The EBV-DNA load in the peripheral blood was also abnormally increased (1.0 × 10(4) copies/µg DNA). Thus, the diagnosis was established as chronic active EBV infection (CAEBV). This case illustrates the necessity of careful differential diagnosis of CAEBV owing to its clinical resemblance and pathological overlap with GPA.

Overexpression of Galnt3 in chondrocytes resulted in dwarfism due to the increase of mucin-type O-glycans and reduction of glycosaminoglycans.

Galnt3, UDP-N-acetyl-α-D-galactosamine:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase 3, transfers N-acetyl-D-galactosamine to serine and threonine residues, initiating mucin type O-glycosylation of proteins. We searched the target genes of Runx2, which is an essential transcription factor for chondrocyte maturation, in chondrocytes and found that Galnt3 expression was up-regulated by Runx2 and severely reduced in Runx2(-/-) cartilaginous skeletons. To investigate the function of Galnt3 in chondrocytes, we generated Galnt3(-/-) mice and chondrocyte-specific Galnt3 transgenic mice under the control of the Col2a1 promoter-enhancer. Galnt3(-/-) mice showed a delay in endochondral ossification and shortened limbs at embryonic day 16.5, suggesting that Galnt3 is involved in chondrocyte maturation. Galnt3 transgenic mice presented dwarfism, the chondrocyte maturation was retarded, the cell cycle in chondrocytes was accelerated, premature chondrocyte apoptosis occurred, and the growth plates were disorganized. The binding of Vicia villosa agglutinin, which recognizes the Tn antigen (GalNAc-O-Ser/Thr), was drastically increased in chondrocytes, and aggrecan (Acan) was highly enriched with Tn antigen. However, safranin O staining, which recognizes glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), and Acan were severely reduced. Chondroitin sulfate was reduced in amount, but the elongation of chondroitin sulfate chains had not been severely disturbed in the isolated GAGs. These findings indicate that overexpression of Galnt3 in chondrocytes caused dwarfism due to the increase of mucin-type O-glycans and the reduction of GAGs, probably through competition with xylosyltransferases, which initiate GAG chains by attaching O-linked xylose to serine residues, suggesting a negative effect of Galnt family proteins on Acan deposition in addition to the positive effect of Galnt3 on chondrocyte maturation.

OPC-28326, a selective peripheral vasodilator with angiogenic activity, mitigates postinfarction cardiac remodeling.

Although OPC-28326, 4-(N-methyl-2-phenylethylamino)-1-(3,5-dimethyl-4-propionyl-aminobenzoyl) piperidine hydrochloride monohydrate, was developed as a selective peripheral vasodilator with α2-adrenergic antagonist properties, it also reportedly exhibits angiogenic activity in an ischemic leg model. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of OPC-28326 on the architectural dynamics and function of the infarcted left ventricle during the chronic stage of myocardial infarction. Myocardial infarction was induced in male C3H/He mice, after which the mice were randomly assigned into two groups: a control group receiving a normal diet and an OPC group whose diet contained 0.05% OPC-28326. The survival rate among the mice (n = 18 in each group) 4 wk postinfarction was significantly greater in the OPC than control group (83 vs. 44%; P < 0.05), and left ventricular remodeling and dysfunction were significantly mitigated. Histologically, infarct wall thickness was significantly greater in the OPC group, due in part to an abundance of nonmyocyte components, including blood vessels and myofibroblasts. Five days postinfarction, Ki-67-positive proliferating cells were more abundant in the granulation tissue in the OPC group, and there were fewer apoptotic cells. These effects were accompanied by activation of myocardial Akt and endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Hypoxia within the infarct issue, assessed using pimonidazole staining, was markedly attenuated in the OPC group. In summary, OPC-28326 increased the nonmyocyte population in infarct tissue by increasing proliferation and reducing apoptosis, thereby altering the tissue dynamics such that wall stress was reduced, which might have contributed to a mitigation of postinfarction cardiac remodeling and dysfunction.

Current understanding of ZIP and ZnT zinc transporters in human health and diseases.

Zinc transporters, the Zrt-, Irt-like protein (ZIP) family and the Zn transporter (ZnT) family transporters, are found in all aspects of life. Increasing evidence has clarified the molecular mechanism, in which both transporters play critical roles in cellular and physiological functions via mobilizing zinc across the cellular membrane. In the last decade, mutations in ZIP and ZnT transporter genes have been shown to be implicated in a number of inherited human diseases. Moreover, dysregulation of expression and activity of both transporters has been suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis and progression of chronic diseases including cancer, immunological impairment, and neurodegenerative diseases, although comprehensive understanding is far from complete. The diverse phenotypes of diseases related to ZIP and ZnT transporters reflect the multifarious biological functions of both transporters. The present review summarizes the current understanding of ZIP and ZnT transporter functions from the standpoint of human health and diseases. The study of zinc transporters is currently of great clinical interest.