Investigating the interactions of the 18kDa translocator protein and its ligand PK11195 in planar lipid bilayers.

The functional effects of a drug ligand may be due not only to an interaction with its membrane protein target, but also with the surrounding lipid membrane. We have investigated the interaction of a drug ligand, PK11195, with its primary protein target, the integral membrane 18kDa translocator protein (TSPO), and model membranes using Langmuir monolayers, quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) and neutron reflectometry (NR). We found that PK11195 is incorporated into lipid monolayers and lipid bilayers, causing a decrease in lipid area/molecule and an increase in lipid bilayer rigidity. NR revealed that PK11195 is incorporated into the lipid chain region at a volume fraction of ~10%. We reconstituted isolated mouse TSPO into a lipid bilayer and studied its interaction with PK11195 using QCM-D, which revealed a larger than expected frequency response and indicated a possible conformational change of the protein. NR measurements revealed a TSPO surface coverage of 23% when immobilised to a modified surface via its polyhistidine tag, and a thickness of 51Å for the TSPO layer. These techniques allowed us to probe both the interaction of TSPO with PK11195, and PK11195 with model membranes. It is possible that previously reported TSPO-independent effects of PK11195 are due to incorporation into the lipid bilayer and alteration of its physical properties. There are also implications for the variable binding profiles observed for TSPO ligands, as drug-membrane interactions may contribute to the apparent affinity of TSPO ligands.

Protein-ligand and membrane-ligand interactions in pharmacology: the case of the translocator protein (TSPO).

The targets of many small molecule drugs are membrane proteins, and traditionally the focus of pharmacology is on the interaction between such receptors and their small molecule drug ligands. However, the lipid membranes of cells and organelles are increasingly appreciated as diverse and dynamic structures that also specifically interact with small molecule drugs and peptides, causing profound changes in the properties of these membranes, and modulating the function of the membrane and the proteins within it. Drug-membrane interactions are likely to have a role in both the therapeutic and toxic activity of a variety of compounds, and their role in the overall pharmacological effect of a drug needs to be understood more clearly. This is the case for the 18 kDa translocator protein (TSPO) and its ligands, where functions that were established based on pharmacological studies are being called into question. Re-examining the putative functions of the TSPO and the effects of its ligands reveals a need to consider in more detail the interplay between protein-ligand and membrane-ligand interactions, and the modulatory relationship between TSPO and the lipid membrane.

Anionic phospholipid interactions of the prion protein N terminus are minimally perturbing and not driven solely by the octapeptide repeat domain.

Although the N terminus of the prion protein (PrP(C)) has been shown to directly associate with lipid membranes, the precise determinants, biophysical basis, and functional implications of such binding, particularly in relation to endogenously occurring fragments, are unresolved. To better understand these issues, we studied a range of synthetic peptides: specifically those equating to the N1 (residues 23-110) and N2 (23-89) fragments derived from constitutive processing of PrP(C) and including those representing arbitrarily defined component domains of the N terminus of mouse prion protein. Utilizing more physiologically relevant large unilamellar vesicles, fluorescence studies at synaptosomal pH (7.4) showed absent binding of all peptides to lipids containing the zwitterionic headgroup phosphatidylcholine and mixtures containing the anionic headgroups phosphatidylglycerol or phosphatidylserine. At pH 5, typical of early endosomes, quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation showed the highest affinity binding occurred with N1 and N2, selective for anionic lipid species. Of particular note, the absence of binding by individual peptides representing component domains underscored the importance of the combination of the octapeptide repeat and the N-terminal polybasic regions for effective membrane interaction. In addition, using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation and solid-state NMR, we characterized for the first time that both N1 and N2 deeply insert into the lipid bilayer with minimal disruption. Potential functional implications related to cellular stress responses are discussed.

Functional gains in energy and cell metabolism after TSPO gene insertion.

Recent loss-of-function studies in tissue-specific as well as global Tspo (Translocator Protein 18 kDa) knockout mice have not confirmed its long assumed indispensability for the translocation of cholesterol across the mitochondrial inter-membrane space, a rate-limiting step in steroid biosynthesis. Instead, recent studies in global Tspo knockout mice indicate that TSPO may play a more fundamental role in cellular bioenergetics, which may include the indirect down-stream regulation of transport or metabolic functions. To examine whether overexpression of the TSPO protein alters the cellular bioenergetic profile, Jurkat cells with low to absent endogenous expression were transfected with a TSPO construct to create a stable cell line with de novo expression of exogenous TSPO protein. Expression of TSPO was confirmed by RT-qPCR, radioligand binding with [3H]PK11195 and immunocytochemistry with a TSPO antibody. We demonstrate that TSPO gene insertion causes increased transcription of genes involved in the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Furthermore, TSPO insertion increased mitochondrial ATP production as well as cell excitability, reflected in a decrease in patch clamp recorded rectified K channel currents. These functional changes were accompanied by an increase in cell proliferation and motility, which were inhibited by PK11195, a selective ligand for TSPO. We suggest that TSPO may serve a range of functions that can be viewed as downstream regulatory effects of its primary, evolutionary conserved role in cell metabolism and energy production.

The 18 kDa translocator protein, microglia and neuroinflammation.

The 18 kDa translocator protein (TSPO), previously known as the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor, is expressed in the injured brain. It has become known as an imaging marker of "neuroinflammation" indicating active disease, and is best interpreted as a nondiagnostic biomarker and disease staging tool that refers to histopathology rather than disease etiology. The therapeutic potential of TSPO as a drug target is mostly based on the understanding that it is an outer mitochondrial membrane protein required for the translocation of cholesterol, which thus regulates the rate of steroid synthesis. This pivotal role together with the evolutionary conservation of TSPO has underpinned the belief that any loss or mutation of TSPO should be associated with significant physiological deficits or be outright incompatible with life. However, against prediction, full Tspo knockout mice are viable and across their lifespan do not show the phenotype expected if cholesterol transport and steroid synthesis were significantly impaired. Thus, the "translocation" function of TSPO remains to be better substantiated. Here, we discuss the literature before and after the introduction of the new nomenclature for TSPO and review some of the newer findings. In light of the controversy surrounding the function of TSPO, we emphasize the continued importance of identifying compounds with confirmed selectivity and suggest that TSPO expression is analyzed within specific disease contexts rather than merely equated with the reified concept of "neuroinflammation."

Positron emission tomography and functional characterization of a complete PBR/TSPO knockout.

The evolutionarily conserved peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR), or 18-kDa translocator protein (TSPO), is thought to be essential for cholesterol transport and steroidogenesis, and thus life. TSPO has been proposed as a biomarker of neuroinflammation and a new drug target in neurological diseases ranging from Alzheimer's disease to anxiety. Here we show that global C57BL/6-Tspo(tm1GuWu(GuwiyangWurra))-knockout mice are viable with normal growth, lifespan, cholesterol transport, blood pregnenolone concentration, protoporphyrin IX metabolism, fertility and behaviour. However, while the activation of microglia after neuronal injury appears to be unimpaired, microglia from (GuwiyangWurra)TSPO knockouts produce significantly less ATP, suggesting reduced metabolic activity. Using the isoquinoline PK11195, the ligand originally used for the pharmacological and structural characterization of the PBR/TSPO, and the imidazopyridines CLINDE and PBR111, we demonstrate the utility of (GuwiyangWurra)TSPO knockouts to provide robust data on drug specificity and selectivity, both in vitro and in vivo, as well as the mechanism of action of putative TSPO-targeting drugs.