Caffeine protects against experimental acute pancreatitis by inhibition of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor-mediated Ca2+ release.

OBJECTIVE: Caffeine reduces toxic Ca2+ signals in pancreatic acinar cells via inhibition of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R)-mediated signalling, but effects of other xanthines have not been evaluated, nor effects of xanthines on experimental acute pancreatitis (AP). We have determined effects of caffeine and its xanthine metabolites on pancreatic acinar IP3R-mediated Ca2+ signalling and experimental AP. DESIGN: Isolated pancreatic acinar cells were exposed to secretagogues, uncaged IP3 or toxins that induce AP and effects of xanthines, non-xanthine phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors and cyclic adenosine monophosphate and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cAMP/cGMP) determined. The intracellular cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]C), mitochondrial depolarisation and necrosis were assessed by confocal microscopy. Effects of xanthines were evaluated in caerulein-induced AP (CER-AP), taurolithocholic acid 3-sulfate-induced AP (TLCS-AP) or palmitoleic acid plus ethanol-induced AP (fatty acid ethyl ester AP (FAEE-AP)). Serum xanthines were measured by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Caffeine, dimethylxanthines and non-xanthine PDE inhibitors blocked IP3-mediated Ca2+ oscillations, while monomethylxanthines had little effect. Caffeine and dimethylxanthines inhibited uncaged IP3-induced Ca2+ rises, toxin-induced Ca2+ release, mitochondrial depolarisation and necrotic cell death pathway activation; cAMP/cGMP did not inhibit toxin-induced Ca2+ rises. Caffeine significantly ameliorated CER-AP with most effect at 25 mg/kg (seven injections hourly); paraxanthine or theophylline did not. Caffeine at 25 mg/kg significantly ameliorated TLCS-AP and FAEE-AP. Mean total serum levels of dimethylxanthines and trimethylxanthines peaked at >2 mM with 25 mg/kg caffeine but at <100 µM with 25 mg/kg paraxanthine or theophylline. CONCLUSIONS: Caffeine and its dimethylxanthine metabolites reduced pathological IP3R-mediated pancreatic acinar Ca2+ signals but only caffeine ameliorated experimental AP. Caffeine is a suitable starting point for medicinal chemistry.

Selective inhibition of BET proteins reduces pancreatic damage and systemic inflammation in bile acid- and fatty acid ethyl ester- but not caerulein-induced acute pancreatitis.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the therapeutic potential of I-BET-762, an inhibitor of the bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) protein family, in experimental acute pancreatitis (AP). METHODS: AP was induced by retrograde infusion of taurolithocholic acid sulphate into the biliopancreatic duct (TLCS-AP) or 2 intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of ethanol and palmitoleic acid 1 h apart (FAEE-AP) or 12 hourly i.p. injections of caerulein (CER-AP). In all treatment groups, I-BET-762 (30 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered at the time of disease induction and again 12 h later. AP severity was assessed at 24 h by serum biochemistry, multiple cytokines and histopathology. RESULTS: TLCS-AP, FAEE-AP and CER-AP resulted in characteristic elevations in serum amylase and cytokine levels, increased pancreatic trypsin and myeloperoxidase activity, typical pancreatic histopathological changes and lung injury. Treatment with I-BET-762 significantly reduced biochemical, cytokine and histopathological responses in TLCS-AP and FAEE-AP, but not CER-AP. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that in different forms of AP there are significant differences in the epigenetic control of gene transcription contributing to the severity of disease responses. There is therapeutic potential in targeting bromodomains for the treatment of gallstone- and alcohol-related pancreatitis.

Potent antimyeloma activity of the novel bromodomain inhibitors I-BET151 and I-BET762.

The bromodomain and extraterminal (BET) protein BRD2-4 inhibitors hold therapeutic promise in preclinical models of hematologic malignancies. However, translation of these data to molecules suitable for clinical development has yet to be accomplished. Herein we expand the mechanistic understanding of BET inhibitors in multiple myeloma by using the chemical probe molecule I-BET151. I-BET151 induces apoptosis and exerts strong antiproliferative effect in vitro and in vivo. This is associated with contrasting effects on oncogenic MYC and HEXIM1, an inhibitor of the transcriptional activator P-TEFb. I-BET151 causes transcriptional repression of MYC and MYC-dependent programs by abrogating recruitment to the chromatin of the P-TEFb component CDK9 in a BRD2-4-dependent manner. In contrast, transcriptional upregulation of HEXIM1 is BRD2-4 independent. Finally, preclinical studies show that I-BET762 has a favorable pharmacologic profile as an oral agent and that it inhibits myeloma cell proliferation, resulting in survival advantage in a systemic myeloma xenograft model. These data provide a strong rationale for extending the clinical testing of the novel antimyeloma agent I-BET762 and reveal insights into biologic pathways required for myeloma cell proliferation.

The utility of pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling in the discovery and optimization of selective S1P(1) agonists.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P(1)) receptor agonists such as Fingolimod (FTY-720) are a novel class of immunomodulators that have clinical utility in the treatment of remitting relapsing multiples sclerosis. This class of compound act by inducing peripheral lymphopenia. Using an integrated pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) approach based on an in vivo rat model, novel S1P(1) agonists were identified with a predicted more rapid rate of reversibility of lymphocyte reduction in human compared to Fingolimod. The in vivo potency of 15 compounds based on PK-PD modelling of the rat lymphocyte reduction model was correlated with in vitro measures of potency at the S1P(1) receptor using ß arrestin recruitment and G-protein signalling. A structurally novel S1P(1) agonist was identified and predictions of human pharmacokinetics and clinical dose are presented.

Design, Synthesis, and Characterization of I-BET567, a Pan-Bromodomain and Extra Terminal (BET) Bromodomain Oral Candidate.

Through regulation of the epigenome, the bromodomain and extra terminal (BET) family of proteins represent important therapeutic targets for the treatment of human disease. Through mimicking the endogenous N-acetyl-lysine group and disrupting the protein-protein interaction between histone tails and the bromodomain, several small molecule pan-BET inhibitors have progressed to oncology clinical trials. This work describes the medicinal chemistry strategy and execution to deliver an orally bioavailable tetrahydroquinoline (THQ) pan-BET candidate. Critical to the success of this endeavor was a potency agnostic analysis of a data set of 1999 THQ BET inhibitors within the GSK collection which enabled identification of appropriate lipophilicity space to deliver compounds with a higher probability of desired oral candidate quality properties. SAR knowledge was leveraged via Free-Wilson analysis within this design space to identify a small group of targets which ultimately delivered I-BET567 (27), a pan-BET candidate inhibitor that demonstrated efficacy in mouse models of oncology and inflammation.

Selective targeting of BD1 and BD2 of the BET proteins in cancer and immunoinflammation.

The two tandem bromodomains of the BET (bromodomain and extraterminal domain) proteins enable chromatin binding to facilitate transcription. Drugs that inhibit both bromodomains equally have shown efficacy in certain malignant and inflammatory conditions. To explore the individual functional contributions of the first (BD1) and second (BD2) bromodomains in biology and therapy, we developed selective BD1 and BD2 inhibitors. We found that steady-state gene expression primarily requires BD1, whereas the rapid increase of gene expression induced by inflammatory stimuli requires both BD1 and BD2 of all BET proteins. BD1 inhibitors phenocopied the effects of pan-BET inhibitors in cancer models, whereas BD2 inhibitors were predominantly effective in models of inflammatory and autoimmune disease. These insights into the differential requirement of BD1 and BD2 for the maintenance and induction of gene expression may guide future BET-targeted therapies.

Discovery of Tetrahydropyrazolopyridine as Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Receptor 3 (S1P3)-Sparing S1P1 Agonists Active at Low Oral Doses.

FTY720 is the first oral small molecule approved for the treatment of people suffering from relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. It is a potent agonist of the S1P1 receptor, but its lack of selectivity against the S1P3 receptor has been linked to most of the cardiovascular side effects observed in the clinic. These findings have triggered intensive efforts toward the identification of a second generation of S1P3-sparing S1P1 agonists. We have recently disclosed a series of orally active tetrahydroisoquinoline (THIQ) compounds matching these criteria. In this paper we describe how we defined and implemented a strategy aiming at the discovery of selective structurally distinct follow-up agonists. This effort culminated with the identification of a series of orally active tetrahydropyrazolopyridines.

Anorectic, thermogenic and anti-obesity activity of a selective orexin-1 receptor antagonist in ob/ob mice.

A single dose of the orexin-1 (OX1) receptor antagonist 1-(2-methylbenzoxazol-6-yl)-3-[1,5] naphthyridin-4-yl urea hydrochloride (SB-334867-A) reduces orexin-A-induced feeding and natural feeding in Sprague Dawley rats. In this study, the anti-obesity effects of SB-334867-A were determined in genetically obese (ob/ob) mice dosed with SB-334867-A (30 mg/kg, i.p.) once daily for 7 days, and then twice daily for a further 7 days. SB-334867-A reduced cumulative food intake and body weight gain over 14 days. Total fat mass gain, determined by Dual Emission X-ray Absorptiometry, was reduced, while gain in fat-free mass was unchanged. Fasting (5 h) blood glucose was also reduced at the end of the study, with a trend to reduced plasma insulin. Interscapular brown adipose tissue (BAT) weight was reduced, the tissue was noticeably darker in colour and quantitative PCR (TaqMan) analysis of this tissue showed a trend to an increase in uncoupling protein-1 mRNA expression, suggesting that SB-334867-A might stimulate thermogenesis. This was confirmed in a separate study in which a single dose of SB-334867-A (30 mg/kg, i.p.) increased metabolic rate over 4 h in ob/ob mice. OX1 receptor mRNA was detected in BAT, and its expression was increased by 58% by treatment with SB-334867-A. This is the first demonstration that OX1 receptor antagonists have potential as both anti-obesity and anti-diabetic agents.

Orexins and the treatment of obesity.

Orexin-A and -B are two peptides derived by proteolytic cleavage from a 130-amino acid precursor, prepro-orexin, which were recently isolated from the rat hypothalamus. Orexin-A is fully conserved across mammalian species, whilst rat and human orexin-B differ by two amino acids. These peptides bind to two Gq-coupled receptors, termed orexin-1 and orexin-2. The receptors are 64% homologous and highly conserved across species. Orexin-A is equipotent at orexin-1 and orexin-2 receptors, whilst orexin-B displays moderate (approximately 10 fold) selectivity for orexin-2 receptors. The distribution and pharmacology of the orexin peptides and their receptors indicate that they play a role in various regulatory systems including energy homeostasis and the regulation of feeding, the evidence for which is reviewed here.

Optimization of sphingosine-1-phosphate-1 receptor agonists: effects of acidic, basic, and zwitterionic chemotypes on pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles.

The efficacy of the recently approved drug fingolimod (FTY720) in multiple sclerosis patients results from the action of its phosphate metabolite on sphingosine-1-phosphate S1P1 receptors, while a variety of side effects have been ascribed to its S1P3 receptor activity. Although S1P and phospho-fingolimod share the same structural elements of a zwitterionic headgroup and lipophilic tail, a variety of chemotypes have been found to show S1P1 receptor agonism. Here we describe a study of the tolerance of the S1P1 and S1P3 receptors toward bicyclic heterocycles of systematically varied shape and connectivity incorporating acidic, basic, or zwitterionic headgroups. We compare their physicochemical properties, their performance in in vitro and in vivo pharmacokinetic models, and their efficacy in peripheral lymphocyte lowering. The campaign resulted in the identification of several potent S1P1 receptor agonists with good selectivity vs S1P3 receptors, efficacy at <1 mg/kg oral doses, and developability properties suitable for progression into preclinical development.

Discovery of epigenetic regulator I-BET762: lead optimization to afford a clinical candidate inhibitor of the BET bromodomains.

The bromo and extra C-terminal domain (BET) family of bromodomains are involved in binding epigenetic marks on histone proteins, more specifically acetylated lysine residues. This paper describes the discovery and structure-activity relationships (SAR) of potent benzodiazepine inhibitors that disrupt the function of the BET family of bromodomains (BRD2, BRD3, and BRD4). This work has yielded a potent, selective compound I-BET762 that is now under evaluation in a phase I/II clinical trial for nuclear protein in testis (NUT) midline carcinoma and other cancers.

Discovery of a brain-penetrant S1P3-sparing direct agonist of the S1P1 and S1P5 receptors efficacious at low oral dose.

2-Amino-2-(4-octylphenethyl)propane-1,3-diol 1 (fingolimod, FTY720) has been recently marketed in the United States for the treatment of patients with remitting relapsing multiple sclerosis (RRMS). Its efficacy has been primarily linked to the agonism on T cells of S1P(1), one of the five sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) G-protein-coupled receptors, while its cardiovascular side effects have been associated with activity at S1P(3). Emerging data suggest that the ability of this molecule to cross the blood-brain barrier and to interact with both S1P(1) and S1P(5) in the central nervous system (CNS) may contribute to its efficacy in treating patients with RRMS. We have recently disclosed the structure of an advanced, first generation S1P(3)-sparing S1P(1) agonist, a zwitterion with limited CNS exposure. In this Article, we highlight our strategy toward the identification of CNS-penetrant S1P(3)-sparing S1P(1) and S1P(5) agonists resulting in the discovery of 5-(3-{2-[2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl]-5-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6-isoquinolinyl}-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)-2-[(1-methylethyl)oxy]benzonitrile 15. Its exceptional in vivo potency and good pharmacokinetic properties translate into a very low predicted therapeutic dose in human (<1 mg p.o. once daily).

Discovery of a Selective S1P1 Receptor Agonist Efficacious at Low Oral Dose and Devoid of Effects on Heart Rate.

Gilenya (fingolimod, FTY720) was recently approved by the U.S. FDA for the treatment of patients with remitting relapsing multiple sclerosis (RRMS). It is a potent agonist of four of the five sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) G-protein-coupled receptors (S1P1 and S1P3-5). It has been postulated that fingolimod's efficacy is due to S1P1 agonism, while its cardiovascular side effects (transient bradycardia and hypertension) are due to S1P3 agonism. We have discovered a series of selective S1P1 agonists, which includes 3-[6-(5-{3-cyano-4-[(1-methylethyl)oxy]phenyl}-1,2,4-oxadiazol-3-yl)-5-methyl-3,4-dihydro-2(1H)-isoquinolinyl]propanoate, 20, a potent, S1P3-sparing, orally active S1P1 agonist. Compound 20 is as efficacious as fingolimod in a collagen-induced arthritis model and shows excellent pharmacokinetic properties preclinically. Importantly, the selectivity of 20 against S1P3 is responsible for an absence of cardiovascular signal in telemetered rats, even at high dose levels.

Technical Advance: Function and efficacy of an {alpha}4-integrin antagonist using bioluminescence imaging to detect leukocyte trafficking in murine experimental colitis.

Leukocyte trafficking is a therapeutic target in IBD. The integrins α4ß and α4ß1 regulate leukocyte migration into tissues and lymphoid organs. Current strategies rely on biologics, such as mAb, to inhibit leukocyte recruitment. Here we show the in vivo therapeutic effects of a small molecule α4-integrin antagonist (GSK223618A) in a leukocyte-trafficking model and a murine model of colitis. Leukocytes isolated from MLNs of transgenic ß-actin-luc+ mice were injected i.v. into recipients with DSS-induced colitis. Recipient mice were orally gavaged with vehicle or an α4-integrin antagonist 1 h pre-adoptive transfer, followed by bioluminescence whole body and ex vivo organ imaging 4 h post-transfer. To confirm its therapeutic effect, the α4-integrin antagonist was given orally twice daily for 6 days to mice with DSS-induced colitis, starting on Day 3. Clinical, macroscopic, and histological signs of inflammation were assessed and gene-expression profiles analyzed. Using bioluminescence imaging, we tracked and quantified leukocyte migration to the inflamed gut and demonstrated its inhibition by a small molecule α4-integrin antagonist. Additionally, the therapeutic effect of the antagonist was confirmed in DSS-induced colitis in terms of clinical, macroscopic, and histological signs of inflammation. Gene expression analysis suggested enhancement of tissue healing in compound-treated animals. Inhibition of leukocyte trafficking using small molecule integrin antagonists is a promising alternative to large molecule biologics. Furthermore, in vivo bioluminescence imaging is a valuable strategy for preclinical evaluation of potential therapeutics that target leukocyte trafficking in inflammatory diseases.

Discovery of potent and stable conformationally constrained analogues of the MCH R1 antagonist SB-568849.

A strategy of systematically targeting more rigid analogues of the known MCH R1 receptor antagonist, SB-568849, serendipitously uncovered a binding mode accessible to N-aryl-phthalimide ligands. Optimisation to improve the stability of this compound class led to the discovery of novel N-aryl-quinazolinones, benzotriazinones and thienopyrimidinones as selective ligands with good affinity for human melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 1.