Empathic stress is decreased by prior stressor experience and increased in a position of power.

The observation of a stressed individual can trigger a stress response in a passive observer. Little is known about the mechanisms of this so-termed empathic stress, including the observer's empathic involvement with the stressful situation. In 108 opposite-sex stranger dyads, we expected to increase the observer's empathic involvement with a stressed target performing a standardized laboratory stressor (Trier Social Stress Test, TSST; Kirschbaum et al., 1993) by exposing observers themselves to the TSST one week earlier. Conversely, we intended to decrease empathic involvement by granting observers a powerful position over the targets (by asking them to evaluate the targets' TSST performance and allegedly decide on their financial compensation). A control group without any manipulation was also included. In the preregistered data analysis, two types of empathic stress were investigated: vicarious stress, which evolves irrespective of the target's stress response, and stress resonance, which is proportional to the target's stress response. Irrespective of manipulation, observers exhibited vicarious stress in subjective and high-frequency heart rate variability (HF-HRV), and synchronized with the targets' stress reactivity in cortisol release. Prior TSST experience unexpectedly decreased observers' self-reported empathy and vicarious cortisol stress reactivity. The power manipulation, conversely, led to stronger observer vicarious stress in overall heart rate and HF-HRV reactivity. Based on Wondra and Ellsworth's (2015) appraisal theory, we propose that, due to their prior stressor exposure, observers habituated to said stressor, and consequently changed their evaluation of the target's stressful situation. In contrast, observers in the powerful position may have felt responsible for the targets, triggering a stronger vicarious stressful experience.

Measuring empathic stress - A systematic review of methodology and practical considerations for future research.

Aside from stressors that each of us experience directly, we also share the stress of the people around us. Such empathic stress exists on psychological and physiological levels, including subjective, sympathetic, parasympathetic and endocrine activation. The objective of this review is to offer an overview of methodology over the past fifteen years of empathic stress research and derive practical considerations for future research endeavors in the field. We used a keyword search strategy in the databases Web of Science, PsycInfo and PubMed to find empathic stress studies published until December 2023, and included 17 studies into our review. The reviewed laboratory studies provide initial yet consistent evidence for the existence of empathic stress across different populations, in intimate and stranger dyads, with direct and virtual contact, across multiple levels of the stress system, and based on diverse statistical analysis methods. We discuss all findings and derive practical considerations for future empathic stress research. The diversity of methods established provides a solid foundation upon which future studies can expand.

Expression of M6 and M7 lysin in Mytilus edulis is not restricted to sperm, but occurs also in oocytes and somatic tissue of males and females.

Sperm proteins of marine sessile invertebrates have been extensively studied to understand the molecular basis of reproductive isolation. Apart from molecules such as bindin of sea urchins or lysin of abalone species, the acrosomal protein M7 lysin of Mytilus edulis has been analyzed. M7 lysin was found to be under positive selection, but mechanisms driving the evolution of this protein are not fully understood. To explore functional aspects, this study investigated the protein expression pattern of M7 and M6 lysin in gametes and somatic tissue of male and female M. edulis. The study employs a previously published monoclonal antibody (G26-AG8) to investigate M6 and M7 lysin protein expression, and explores expression of both genes. It is shown that these proteins and their encoding genes are expressed in gametes and somatic tissue of both sexes. This is in contrast to sea urchin bindin and abalone lysin, in which gene expression is strictly limited to males. Although future studies need to clarify the functional importance of both acrosomal proteins in male and female somatic tissue, new insights into the evolution of sperm proteins in marine sessile invertebrates are possible. This is because proteins with male-specific expression (bindin, lysin) might evolve differently than proteins with expression in both sexes (M6/M7 lysin), and the putative function of both proteins in females opens the possibility that the evolution of M6/M7 lysin is under sexual antagonistic selection, for example, mutations beneficial to the acrosomal function that are less beneficial the function in somatic tissue of females.

Osteopontin as two-sided mediator of intestinal inflammation.

Osteopontin (OPN) is characterized as a major amplifier of Th1-immune responses. However, its role in intestinal inflammation is currently unknown. We found considerably raised OPN levels in blood of wild-type (WT) mice with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis. To identify the role of this mediator in intestinal inflammation, we analysed experimental colitis in OPN-deficient (OPN(-/-)) mice. In the acute phase of colitis these mice showed more extensive colonic ulcerations and mucosal destruction than WT mice, which was abrogated by application of soluble OPN. Within the OPN(-/-) mice, infiltrating macrophages were not activated and showed impaired phagocytosis. Reduced mRNA expression of interleukin (IL)-1 beta and matrix metalloproteinases was found in acute colitis of OPN(-/-) mice. This was associated with decreased blood levels of IL-22, a Th17 cytokine that may mediate epithelial regeneration. However, OPN-(/-) mice showed increased serum levels of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, which could be due to systemically present lipopolysaccharide translocated to the gut. In contrast to acute colitis, during chronic DSS-colitis, which is driven by a Th1 response of the lamina propria infiltrates, OPN(-/-) mice were protected from mucosal inflammation and demonstrated lower serum levels of IL-12 than WT mice. Furthermore, neutralization of OPN in WT mice abrogated colitis. Lastly, we demonstrate that in patients with active Crohn's disease OPN serum concentration correlated significantly with disease activity. Taken together, we postulate a dual function of OPN in intestinal inflammation: During acute inflammation OPN seems to activate innate immunity, reduces tissue damage and initiates mucosal repair whereas during chronic inflammation it promotes the Th1 response and strengthens inflammation.

Toxin-antigen conjugates as selection tools for antibody producing cells.

The generation of antibodies with designated specificity requires cost-intensive and time-consuming screening procedures. Here we present a new method by which hybridoma cells can be selected based on the specificity of the produced antibody by the use of antigen-toxin-conjugates thus eliminating the need of a screening procedure. Initial experiments were done with methotrexate as low molecular weight toxin and fluorescein as model antigen. Methotrexate and a methotrexate-fluorescein conjugate were characterized regarding their toxicity. Afterwards the effect of the fluorescein-specific antibody B13-DE1 on the toxicity of the methotrexate-fluorescein conjugate was determined. Finally, first results showed that hybridoma cells that produce fluorescein specific antibodies are able to grow in the presence of fluorescein-toxin-conjugates.

Use of antibody gene library for the isolation of specific single chain antibodies by ampicillin-antigen conjugates.

Isolation of recombinant antibodies from antibody libraries is commonly performed by different molecular display formats including phage display and ribosome display or different cell-surface display formats. We describe a new method which allows the selection of Escherichia coli cells producing the required single chain antibody by cultivation in presence of ampicillin conjugated to the antigen of interest. The method utilizes the neutralization of the conjugate by the produced single chain antibody which is secreted to the periplasm. Therefore, a new expression system based on the pET26b vector was designed and a library was constructed. The method was successfully established first for the selection of E. coli BL21 Star (DE3) cells expressing a model single chain antibody (anti-fluorescein) by a simple selection assay on LB-agar plates. Using this selection assay, we could identify a new single chain antibody binding biotin by growing E. coli BL21 Star (DE3) containing the library in presence of a biotin-ampicillin conjugate. In contrast to methods as molecular or cell surface display our selection system applies the soluble single chain antibody molecule and thereby avoids undesired effects, e.g. by the phage particle or the yeast fusion protein. By selecting directly in an expression strain, production and characterization of the selected single chain antibody is possible without any further cloning or transformation steps.

Cooperation of dendritic cells with naïve lymphocyte populations to induce the generation of antigen-specific antibodies in vitro.

The production of monoclonal antibodies by hybridoma technology is dependent on lymphocytes taken from vertebrates which have to be immunized against the corresponding antigen. We present here our first experiments which should allow the replacement of this in vivo immunization step by an in vitro immunization procedure. This work provides new possibilities for the specific activation of immune cells in order to use them for the generation of antibodies which are not of murine origin. Bone marrow-derived dendritic cells were loaded with antigen and co-cultured with naïve T and B lymphocytes of non-immunized mice. The interaction and activation of the different cell types were investigated by measuring the expression of specific cell surface markers, the release of activation-dependent interleukins and the secretion of antigen-specific antibodies. We could demonstrate that dendritic cells process and present antigen fragments and activate T cells, that T cells proliferate and release activation-induced interleukins, and that B cells maturate under the influence of activated T cells and secrete antigen-specific antibodies.