Single-cell RNA-seq reveals TOX as a key regulator of CD8+ T cell persistence in chronic infection.

Progenitor-like CD8+ T cells mediate long-term immunity to chronic infection and cancer and respond potently to immune checkpoint blockade. These cells share transcriptional regulators with memory precursor cells, including T cell-specific transcription factor 1 (TCF1), but it is unclear whether they adopt distinct programs to adapt to the immunosuppressive environment. By comparing the single-cell transcriptomes and epigenetic profiles of CD8+ T cells responding to acute and chronic viral infections, we found that progenitor-like CD8+ T cells became distinct from memory precursor cells before the peak of the T cell response. We discovered a coexpression gene module containing Tox that exhibited higher transcriptional activity associated with more abundant active histone marks in progenitor-like cells than memory precursor cells. Moreover, thymocyte selection-associated high mobility group box protein TOX (TOX) promoted the persistence of antiviral CD8+ T cells and was required for the programming of progenitor-like CD8+ T cells. Thus, long-term CD8+ T cell immunity to chronic viral infection requires unique transcriptional and epigenetic programs associated with the transcription factor TOX.

"Stripe" transcription factors provide accessibility to co-binding partners in mammalian genomes.

Regulatory elements activate promoters by recruiting transcription factors (TFs) to specific motifs. Notably, TF-DNA interactions often depend on cooperativity with colocalized partners, suggesting an underlying cis-regulatory syntax. To explore TF cooperativity in mammals, we analyze ∼500 mouse and human primary cells by combining an atlas of TF motifs, footprints, ChIP-seq, transcriptomes, and accessibility. We uncover two TF groups that colocalize with most expressed factors, forming stripes in hierarchical clustering maps. The first group includes lineage-determining factors that occupy DNA elements broadly, consistent with their key role in tissue-specific transcription. The second one, dubbed universal stripe factors (USFs), comprises ∼30 SP, KLF, EGR, and ZBTB family members that recognize overlapping GC-rich sequences in all tissues analyzed. Knockouts and single-molecule tracking reveal that USFs impart accessibility to colocalized partners and increase their residence time. Mammalian cells have thus evolved a TF superfamily with overlapping DNA binding that facilitate chromatin accessibility.

Single-Cell Analyses Reveal Megakaryocyte-Biased Hematopoiesis in Myelofibrosis and Identify Mutant Clone-Specific Targets.

Myelofibrosis is a severe myeloproliferative neoplasm characterized by increased numbers of abnormal bone marrow megakaryocytes that induce fibrosis, destroying the hematopoietic microenvironment. To determine the cellular and molecular basis for aberrant megakaryopoiesis in myelofibrosis, we performed single-cell transcriptome profiling of 135,929 CD34+ lineage- hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs), single-cell proteomics, genomics, and functional assays. We identified a bias toward megakaryocyte differentiation apparent from early multipotent stem cells in myelofibrosis and associated aberrant molecular signatures. A sub-fraction of myelofibrosis megakaryocyte progenitors (MkPs) are transcriptionally similar to healthy-donor MkPs, but the majority are disease specific, with distinct populations expressing fibrosis- and proliferation-associated genes. Mutant-clone HSPCs have increased expression of megakaryocyte-associated genes compared to wild-type HSPCs, and we provide early validation of G6B as a potential immunotherapy target. Our study paves the way for selective targeting of the myelofibrosis clone and illustrates the power of single-cell multi-omics to discover tumor-specific therapeutic targets and mediators of tissue fibrosis.

Interspecies regulatory landscapes and elements revealed by novel joint systematic integration of human and mouse blood cell epigenomes.

Knowledge of locations and activities of cis-regulatory elements (CREs) is needed to decipher basic mechanisms of gene regulation and to understand the impact of genetic variants on complex traits. Previous studies identified candidate CREs (cCREs) using epigenetic features in one species, making comparisons difficult between species. In contrast, we conducted an interspecies study defining epigenetic states and identifying cCREs in blood cell types to generate regulatory maps that are comparable between species, using integrative modeling of eight epigenetic features jointly in human and mouse in our Validated Systematic Integration (VISION) Project. The resulting catalogs of cCREs are useful resources for further studies of gene regulation in blood cells, indicated by high overlap with known functional elements and strong enrichment for human genetic variants associated with blood cell phenotypes. The contribution of each epigenetic state in cCREs to gene regulation, inferred from a multivariate regression, was used to estimate epigenetic state Regulatory Potential (esRP) scores for each cCRE in each cell type, which were used to categorize dynamic changes in cCREs. Groups of cCREs displaying similar patterns of regulatory activity in human and mouse cell types, obtained by joint clustering on esRP scores, harbored distinctive transcription factor binding motifs that were similar between species. An interspecies comparison of cCREs revealed both conserved and species-specific patterns of epigenetic evolution. Finally, we showed that comparisons of the epigenetic landscape between species can reveal elements with similar roles in regulation, even in the absence of genomic sequence alignment.

Snapshot: a package for clustering and visualizing epigenetic history during cell differentiation.

BACKGROUND: Epigenetic modification of chromatin plays a pivotal role in regulating gene expression during cell differentiation. The scale and complexity of epigenetic data pose significant challenges for biologists to identify the regulatory events controlling cell differentiation. RESULTS: To reduce the complexity, we developed a package, called Snapshot, for clustering and visualizing candidate cis-regulatory elements (cCREs) based on their epigenetic signals during cell differentiation. This package first introduces a binarized indexing strategy for clustering the cCREs. It then provides a series of easily interpretable figures for visualizing the signal and epigenetic state patterns of the cCREs clusters during the cell differentiation. It can also use different hierarchies of cell types to highlight the epigenetic history specific to any particular cell lineage. We demonstrate the utility of Snapshot using data from a consortium project for ValIdated Systematic IntegratiON (VISION) of epigenomic data in hematopoiesis. CONCLUSION: The package Snapshot can identify all distinct clusters of genomic locations with unique epigenetic signal patterns during cell differentiation. It outperforms other methods in terms of interpreting and reproducing the identified cCREs clusters. The package of Snapshot is available at GitHub: https://github.com/guanjue/Snapshot .

Systematic integration of GATA transcription factors and epigenomes via IDEAS paints the regulatory landscape of hematopoietic cells.

Members of the GATA family of transcription factors play key roles in the differentiation of specific cell lineages by regulating the expression of target genes. Three GATA factors play distinct roles in hematopoietic differentiation. In order to better understand how these GATA factors function to regulate genes throughout the genome, we are studying the epigenomic and transcriptional landscapes of hematopoietic cells in a model-driven, integrative fashion. We have formed the collaborative multi-lab VISION project to conduct ValIdated Systematic IntegratiON of epigenomic data in mouse and human hematopoiesis. The epigenomic data included nuclease accessibility in chromatin, CTCF occupancy, and histone H3 modifications for 20 cell types covering hematopoietic stem cells, multilineage progenitor cells, and mature cells across the blood cell lineages of mouse. The analysis used the Integrative and Discriminative Epigenome Annotation System (IDEAS), which learns all common combinations of features (epigenetic states) simultaneously in two dimensions-along chromosomes and across cell types. The result is a segmentation that effectively paints the regulatory landscape in readily interpretable views, revealing constitutively active or silent loci as well as the loci specifically induced or repressed in each stage and lineage. Nuclease accessible DNA segments in active chromatin states were designated candidate cis-regulatory elements in each cell type, providing one of the most comprehensive registries of candidate hematopoietic regulatory elements to date. Applications of VISION resources are illustrated for the regulation of genes encoding GATA1, GATA2, GATA3, and Ikaros. VISION resources are freely available from our website http://usevision.org.

SBR-Blood: systems biology repository for hematopoietic cells.

Extensive research into hematopoiesis (the development of blood cells) over several decades has generated large sets of expression and epigenetic profiles in multiple human and mouse blood cell types. However, there is no single location to analyze how gene regulatory processes lead to different mature blood cells. We have developed a new database framework called hematopoietic Systems Biology Repository (SBR-Blood), available online at http://sbrblood.nhgri.nih.gov, which allows user-initiated analyses for cell type correlations or gene-specific behavior during differentiation using publicly available datasets for array- and sequencing-based platforms from mouse hematopoietic cells. SBR-Blood organizes information by both cell identity and by hematopoietic lineage. The validity and usability of SBR-Blood has been established through the reproduction of workflows relevant to expression data, DNA methylation, histone modifications and transcription factor occupancy profiles.

Interspecies regulatory landscapes and elements revealed by novel joint systematic integration of human and mouse blood cell epigenomes.

Knowledge of locations and activities of cis -regulatory elements (CREs) is needed to decipher basic mechanisms of gene regulation and to understand the impact of genetic variants on complex traits. Previous studies identified candidate CREs (cCREs) using epigenetic features in one species, making comparisons difficult between species. In contrast, we conducted an interspecies study defining epigenetic states and identifying cCREs in blood cell types to generate regulatory maps that are comparable between species, using integrative modeling of eight epigenetic features jointly in human and mouse in our V al i dated S ystematic I ntegrati on (VISION) Project. The resulting catalogs of cCREs are useful resources for further studies of gene regulation in blood cells, indicated by high overlap with known functional elements and strong enrichment for human genetic variants associated with blood cell phenotypes. The contribution of each epigenetic state in cCREs to gene regulation, inferred from a multivariate regression, was used to estimate epigenetic state Regulatory Potential (esRP) scores for each cCRE in each cell type, which were used to categorize dynamic changes in cCREs. Groups of cCREs displaying similar patterns of regulatory activity in human and mouse cell types, obtained by joint clustering on esRP scores, harbored distinctive transcription factor binding motifs that were similar between species. An interspecies comparison of cCREs revealed both conserved and species-specific patterns of epigenetic evolution. Finally, we showed that comparisons of the epigenetic landscape between species can reveal elements with similar roles in regulation, even in the absence of genomic sequence alignment.

Universal genome-wide association studies: Powerful joint ancestry and association testing.

The vast majority of human populations and individuals have mixed ancestry. Consequently, adjustment for locus-specific ancestry is essential for genetic association studies. To empower association studies for all populations, it is necessary to integrate effects of locus-specific ancestry and genotype. We developed a joint test of ancestry and association that can be performed with summary statistics, is independent of study design, can take advantage of locus-specific ancestry effects to boost power in association testing, and can utilize association effects to fine map admixture peaks. We illustrate the test using the association between serum triglycerides and LPL. By combining data from African Americans, European Americans, and West Africans, we identify three conditionally independent variants with varying amounts of ancestrally differentiated allele frequencies. Using out-of-sample data, we demonstrate improved prediction achievable by accounting for multiple causal variants and locus-specific ancestry effects at a single locus.

Effects of sheared chromatin length on ChIP-seq quality and sensitivity.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by massively parallel, high throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq) is the method of choice for genome-wide identification of DNA segments bound by specific transcription factors or in chromatin with particular histone modifications. However, the quality of ChIP-seq datasets varies widely, with a substantial fraction being of intermediate to poor quality. Thus, it is important to discern and control the factors that contribute to variation in ChIP-seq. In this study, we focused on sonication, a user-controlled variable, to produce sheared chromatin. We systematically varied the amount of shearing of fixed chromatin from a mouse erythroid cell line, carefully measuring the distribution of resultant fragment lengths prior to ChIP-seq. This systematic study was complemented with a retrospective analysis of additional experiments. We found that the level of sonication had a pronounced impact on the quality of ChIP-seq signals. Over-sonication consistently reduced quality, while the impact of under-sonication differed among transcription factors, with no impact on sites bound by CTCF but frequently leading to the loss of sites occupied by TAL1 or bound by POL2. The bound sites not observed in low-quality datasets were inferred to be a mix of both direct and indirect binding. We leveraged these findings to produce a set of CTCF ChIP-seq datasets in rare, primary hematopoietic progenitor cells. Our observation that the amount of chromatin sonication is a key variable in success of ChIP-seq experiments indicates that monitoring the level of sonication can improve ChIP-seq quality and reproducibility and facilitate ChIP-seq in rare cell types.

Transitions in lineage specification and gene regulatory networks in hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells over human development.

Human hematopoiesis is a dynamic process that starts in utero 18-21 days post-conception. Understanding the site- and stage-specific variation in hematopoiesis is important if we are to understand the origin of hematological disorders, many of which occur at specific points in the human lifespan. To unravel how the hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell (HSPC) compartment changes during human ontogeny and the underlying gene regulatory mechanisms, we compare 57,489 HSPCs from 5 different tissues spanning 4 developmental stages through the human lifetime. Single-cell transcriptomic analysis identifies significant site- and developmental stage-specific transitions in cellular architecture and gene regulatory networks. Hematopoietic stem cells show progression from cycling to quiescence and increased inflammatory signaling during ontogeny. We demonstrate the utility of this dataset for understanding aberrant hematopoiesis through comparison to two cancers that present at distinct time points in postnatal life-juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia, a childhood cancer, and myelofibrosis, which classically presents in older adults.

Single-cell profiling of human bone marrow progenitors reveals mechanisms of failing erythropoiesis in Diamond-Blackfan anemia.

Ribosome dysfunction underlies the pathogenesis of many cancers and heritable ribosomopathies. Here, we investigate how mutations in either ribosomal protein large (RPL) or ribosomal protein small (RPS) subunit genes selectively affect erythroid progenitor development and clinical phenotypes in Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA), a rare ribosomopathy with limited therapeutic options. Using single-cell assays of patient-derived bone marrow, we delineated two distinct cellular trajectories segregating with ribosomal protein genotypes. Almost complete loss of erythroid specification was observed in RPS-DBA. In contrast, we observed relative preservation of qualitatively abnormal erythroid progenitors and precursors in RPL-DBA. Although both DBA genotypes exhibited a proinflammatory bone marrow milieu, RPS-DBA was characterized by erythroid differentiation arrest, whereas RPL-DBA was characterized by preserved GATA1 expression and activity. Compensatory stress erythropoiesis in RPL-DBA exhibited disordered differentiation underpinned by an altered glucocorticoid molecular signature, including reduced ZFP36L2 expression, leading to milder anemia and improved corticosteroid response. This integrative analysis approach identified distinct pathways of erythroid failure and defined genotype-phenotype correlations in DBA. These findings may help facilitate therapeutic target discovery.

Establishment of regulatory elements during erythro-megakaryopoiesis identifies hematopoietic lineage-commitment points.

BACKGROUND: Enhancers and promoters are cis-acting regulatory elements associated with lineage-specific gene expression. Previous studies showed that different categories of active regulatory elements are in regions of open chromatin, and each category is associated with a specific subset of post-translationally marked histones. These regulatory elements are systematically activated and repressed to promote commitment of hematopoietic stem cells along separate differentiation paths, including the closely related erythrocyte (ERY) and megakaryocyte (MK) lineages. However, the order in which these decisions are made remains unclear. RESULTS: To characterize the order of cell fate decisions during hematopoiesis, we collected primary cells from mouse bone marrow and isolated 10 hematopoietic populations to generate transcriptomes and genome-wide maps of chromatin accessibility and histone H3 acetylated at lysine 27 binding (H3K27ac). Principle component analysis of transcriptional and open chromatin profiles demonstrated that cells of the megakaryocyte lineage group closely with multipotent progenitor populations, whereas erythroid cells form a separate group distinct from other populations. Using H3K27ac and open chromatin profiles, we showed that 89% of immature MK (iMK)-specific active regulatory regions are present in the most primitive hematopoietic cells, 46% of which contain active enhancer marks. These candidate active enhancers are enriched for transcription factor binding site motifs for megakaryopoiesis-essential proteins, including ERG and ETS1. In comparison, only 64% of ERY-specific active regulatory regions are present in the most primitive hematopoietic cells, 20% of which containing active enhancer marks. These regions were not enriched for any transcription factor consensus sequences. Incorporation of genome-wide DNA methylation identified significant levels of de novo methylation in iMK, but not ERY. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that megakaryopoietic profiles are established early in hematopoiesis and are present in the majority of the hematopoietic progenitor population. However, megakaryopoiesis does not constitute a "default" differentiation pathway, as extensive de novo DNA methylation accompanies megakaryopoietic commitment. In contrast, erythropoietic profiles are not established until a later stage of hematopoiesis, and require more dramatic changes to the transcriptional and epigenetic programs. These data provide important insights into lineage commitment and can contribute to ongoing studies related to diseases associated with differentiation defects.

The Beginning of the Road for Non-Coding RNAs in Normal Hematopoiesis and Hematologic Malignancies.

The field of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) encompasses a wide array of RNA classes that are indispensible for the regulation of cellular activities. However, de-regulation of these ncRNAs can also play key roles in malignant transformation and cancer cell behavior. In this article we survey a select group of microRNAs and long ncRNAs that appear to contribute in keys ways to the development of acute and chronic leukemias, as well as contribute to their diagnosis, prognosis, and potentially, their treatment.