Daily variability in mothers' and fathers' feeding practices and associations with children's eating behaviors.

The current study explores daily variability in maternal and paternal pressuring, restrictive, and structure-related feeding practices and their associations with child energy regulation and food refusal. Multilevel models were run separately for mothers and fathers to understand these associations, as well as within a dyadic framework to account for the interdependence of partners. One hundred families with at least one child between 3- to 5-years old participated by completing seven days of daily diaries. Results suggest there is daily variability in feeding practices for mothers and fathers and children's energy regulation and food refusal. Mothers' daily reports (within family variability) suggested that on days when mothers used more pressure and less structure than usual, children showed more food refusal. Fathers' daily reports suggested that on days when fathers used more pressure or less structure, children showed less energy regulation. On average across the week (between family variability), maternal pressure and restriction was related to child energy regulation. Dyadic multilevel models suggested that fathers' daily feeding behavior was associated with child eating behavior, while mothers' pressure and restrictive feeding on average across the week was a better predictor of between family variability in child eating behavior. For provision of support or structure during feeding, maternal structure was related to less father-reported energy regulation and paternal structure was related to more father-reported energy regulation. The results highlight the necessity of considering both mothers' and fathers' behaviors from day-to-day to get a more authentic picture of the family feeding relationship.

Mothers' and fathers' perceptions of daily mealtime coparenting.

The current study is the first to examine mothers' and fathers' perceptions of mealtime-specific daily coparenting support from their partner. We investigated relations between parents' reports of mealtime-specific coparenting support, global coparenting support, and discrepancies in parents' controlling feeding practices. One-hundred families (67 participating partners) of 3- to 5-year-old children participated. Parents reported daily on coparenting support and feeding practices for seven consecutive days. Preliminary analyses pooling across the week were conducted using correlations, t-tests, and analyses of variance. Although parents' perceptions of global coparenting and mealtime-specific coparenting support were correlated, both mothers and fathers perceived less coparenting support at mealtime than overall in their parenting role. When partners were present at the dinnertime meal, parents perceived greater mealtime coparenting support and mothers also perceived greater global coparenting support from fathers compared to when partners were not present. Using a subsample of families where both mothers and fathers were present at the dinner meal, we used dyadic multilevel models to analyze daily behaviors. These models showed significant daily variability in mothers' mealtime-specific coparenting support from fathers. Fathers' mealtime coparenting support from mothers did not vary day-to-day. On days when mothers perceived greater global coparenting support from their partners, mothers also perceived greater mealtime support. After accounting for the main effects of mothers' and fathers' pressure and restriction, on days when parents reported greater discrepancies between their pressuring feeding practices, mothers perceived less mealtime coparenting support than usual. Results suggest that mealtimes are a challenging context for interparental teamwork, particularly for mothers who receive inconsistent support day-to-day.

The effects of happiness and sadness on Children's snack consumption.

Children appear to engage in emotional eating (i.e., eating in response to negative and positive emotions), but existing research has predominantly relied on parent-report and child-report, which may not necessarily reflect children's actual emotional eating behaviors. This study examined the effects of happiness and sadness on children's observed snack consumption and examined whether child characteristics (i.e., weight, gender, and age) interact with mood to predict snack consumption. To elicit mood, children (N = 91; Mages = 6.8 years; 48 boys) were randomly assigned to one of the three mood induction conditions (happy, sad, or neutral); children's snack consumption was observed and measured after mood induction. Findings showed that children in the sad condition consumed more energy from chocolate, followed by children in the happy condition, and then the neutral condition. However, the reverse pattern was observed for goldfish crackers: children in the neutral condition consumed more energy from this savory snack than children in the happy condition, followed by children in sad condition. Child weight status and gender did not interact with mood to predict snack consumption. Child age did interact with mood: older children consumed more chocolates in the sad condition compared to younger children. Child age was not related to snack consumption in the happy and neutral conditions. This study suggests that emotional eating in response to positive and negative emotions is evident during early childhood, but that this is behavior is developing during this period.

Emotion Regulation Feeding Practices Link Parents' Emotional Eating to Children's Emotional Eating: A Moderated Mediation Study.

UNLABELLED: Past research suggests an association between parents' and children's emotional eating, but research has yet to examine mechanisms underlying this association. OBJECTIVE: The current study examined whether feeding for emotion regulation mediates the association between parents' and children's emotional eating, and whether this association is moderated by children's self-regulation in eating. METHOD: 95 parents reported on their own and their children's emotional eating, their children's self-regulation in eating, as well as their feeding practices. RESULTS: Findings revealed that feeding for emotion regulation mediated the association between parents' and children's emotional eating when children's self-regulation in eating was low, but not when self-regulation in eating was high. CONCLUSION: The current findings demonstrate the complexity of the link between parents' and children's emotional eating, suggesting practitioners should consider both feeding practices and children's self-regulation in eating when designing intervention programs.

Conflict and negotiation with preschoolers during family meals.

Family meals provide opportunities to observe a variety of social exchanges. This study examined the occurrence of conflict and negotiation during the understudied context of family meals, examining both mother-child and father-child interactions with children aged 3-5 (n = 65). We investigated differences in parents' sensitivity and children's affect based on the occurrence of conflict and negotiation. Results indicated conflict was common with both parents, but particularly with mothers. Negotiation occurred less often: half of the time with mothers and a third of the time with fathers. Mothers were less sensitive and children more negative when mother-child conflict occurred; mothers were more sensitive when father-child conflict occurred. Fathers were more responsive when father-child conflict occurred, but more intrusive when both mother-child and father-child conflict occurred. Mother-child negotiation was associated with responsive mothers; mothers were less negative when mother-child negotiation occurred in the absence of father-child negotiation. Findings provide a deeper understanding of family interactions between young children and parents during family meals. These interactional processes may be an essential ingredient to better understand how family meals affect young children's health and well-being. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Maternal feeding practices associated with food neophobia.

The current study examined the associations between children's and mother's food neophobia and parental feeding practices. Eighty-five mothers of 3- to 12-year old children (M=5.7 years; 52% girls) completed a questionnaire online about food neophobia and feeding practices. Mothers with children high in food neophobia used more restriction for health and less monitoring. Mothers with food neophobic children and mothers who were themselves food neophobic also reported that they do not make healthy foods readily available for their children. Mothers high in food neophobia also used more restriction for weight. This study is a starting point for understanding the link between neophobia and feeding practices, but future longitudinal work is needed in order to determine direction of effects. However, interventions could be created to help parents understand the importance of feeding practices for promoting children's food acceptance.

Children's self-regulation in eating: associations with inhibitory control and parents' feeding behavior.

OBJECTIVE: Children who self-regulate while eating and children who show high global self-regulation abilities, such as inhibitory control, are less likely to be overweight than children who do not show the same capacities for self-regulation. This study examined the association between child self-regulation in eating and inhibitory control, and investigated whether self-regulation is related to parents' restrictive feeding practices. METHOD: Sixty-three parents reported on their 3- to 9-year-old children's self-regulation in eating, inhibitory control, and their own feeding practices. RESULTS: Self-regulation in eating and inhibitory control were positively correlated, r = .54. Self-regulation in eating predicted parents' use of restrictive feeding practices above and beyond children's inhibitory control and parents' concerns about their children's weight, p < .01. CONCLUSIONS: When parents believed their children could self-regulate, they used less restrictive feeding practices. Because restriction can compromise self-regulatory abilities, early interventions should teach parents about children's nascent abilities in this domain.

The Validity of Cutaneous Body Image as a Construct and as a Mediator of the Relationship Between Cutaneous Disease and Mental Health.

INTRODUCTION: Cutaneous body image (CBI) is a construct encompassing how individuals perceive their hair, skin, and nails. Negative CBI has been related to negative psychological outcomes and body image concerns. The first aim of our study was to further validate CBI as a construct. Second, as individuals with dermatologic conditions are at an increased risk for anxiety and depression, the study examined CBI as a mediator of the relationships between having a skin condition and anxiety and depression. METHODS: A convenience sample of clinical participants with dermatologist-validated diagnoses of psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, or acne who were currently taking systemic medication (n = 128) were matched to a sample of comparison participants without skin conditions (n = 128) on self-reported gender, ethnicity, developmental stage, and weight status (body mass index). All participants reported on their CBI, self-esteem (global, appearance-related, and weight-related), body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, dietary restraint, anxiety, depression, and demographic characteristics. RESULTS: Cutaneous body image was more negative in those respondents with skin conditions (regression analysis B = - 0.61, standard error 0.23, p = 0.008), demonstrating the criterion-related validity of the measure. CBI was significantly correlated with global (r = 0.39, p < 0.001) and appearance-related self-esteem (r = 0.50, p < 0.001), which establishes convergent validity. CBI was not significantly related to a drive for thinness (r = - 0.12, p = 0.06) or to dietary restraint (r = - 0.05, p = 0.39), supporting discriminant validity. CBI mediated the relationships between having a dermatologic condition and anxiety [point estimate of indirect effect 0.07, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.02, 0.15] and depression (point estimate of indirect effect 0.04, 95% CI 0.01, 0.08). CONCLUSIONS: The measure of CBI has been further validated. Dermatologists must be aware that various dermatoses may impact patient mental health via the mechanism of negative CBI.

Child and parent characteristics related to parental feeding practices. A cross-cultural examination in the US and France.

Although cross-cultural research between France and the United States has contributed to our understanding of adult eating habits, no research to date has considered differences in the way that French and American parents feed their children. American mothers (n=59) and fathers (n=38) and French mothers (n=72) and fathers (n=50) provided information about the feeding practices that they use with their children. U.S. parents reported higher levels of non-nutritive feeding practices and child control over feeding, whereas French parents reported greater monitoring and restriction of their child's food intake for weight reasons. Feeding practices were linked to child Body Mass Index (BMI) in both socio-cultural contexts.

The time of our lives: life span development of timing and event tracking.

Life span developmental profiles were constructed for 305 participants (ages 4-95) for a battery of paced and unpaced perceptual-motor timing tasks that included synchronize-continue tapping at a wide range of target event rates. Two life span hypotheses, derived from an entrainment theory of timing and event tracking, were tested. A preferred period hypothesis predicted a monotonic slowing of a preferred rate (tempo) of event tracking across the life span. An entrainment region hypothesis predicted a quadratic profile in the range of event rates that produced effective timing across the life span; specifically, age-specific entrainment regions should be narrower in childhood and late adulthood than in midlife. Findings across tasks provide converging support for both hypotheses. Implications of these findings are discussed for understanding critical periods in development and age-related slowing of event timing.

The reasoned/reactive model: A new approach to examining eating decisions among female college dieters and nondieters.

Female college students are prone to unhealthy eating patterns that can impact long-term health. This study examined female students' healthy and unhealthy eating behaviors with three decision-making models. Specifically, the theory of reasoned action, prototype/willingness model, and new reasoned/reactive model were compared to determine how reasoned (logical) and reactive (impulsive) factors relate to dietary decisions. Females (N=583, Mage=20.89years) completed measures on reasoned cognitions about foods (attitudes, subjective norms, nutrition knowledge, intentions to eat foods), reactive cognitions about foods (prototypes, affect, willingness to eat foods), dieting, and food consumption. Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed the new reasoned/reactive model to be the preeminent model for examining eating behaviors. This model showed that attitudes were related to intentions and willingness to eat healthy and unhealthy foods. Affect was related to willingness to eat healthy and unhealthy foods, whereas nutrition knowledge was related to intentions and willingness to eat healthy foods only. Intentions and willingness were related to healthy and unhealthy food consumption. Dieting status played a moderating role in the model and revealed mean-level differences between dieters and nondieters. This study highlights the importance of specific factors in relation to female students' eating decisions and unveils a comprehensive model for examining health behaviors.

Childhood body mass index trajectories predicting cardiovascular risk in adolescence.

PURPOSE: The present study compared growth parameters of girls' and boys' body mass index (BMI) trajectories from infancy to middle childhood and evaluated these parameters as predictors of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in adolescence. METHODS: Using 657 children from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, quadratic growth curve analyses were conducted to establish growth parameters (intercept, slope, and quadratic term) for girls and boys from age 15 months to 10.5 years. Parameters were compared across gender and evaluated as predictors of a CVD risk index at the age of 15 years, controlling for characteristics of the adiposity rebound (AR) including age at which it occurred and children's BMI at the rebound. RESULTS: Boys had more extreme trajectories of growth than girls with higher initial BMI at age 15 months (intercept), more rapid declines in BMI before the AR (slope), and sharper rebound growth in BMI after the rebound (quadratic term). For boys and girls, higher intercept, slope, and quadratic term values predicted higher CVD risk at the age of 15 years, controlling for characteristics of the AR. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that individuals at risk for developing CVD later in life may be identified before the AR by elevated BMI at 15 months and slow BMI declines. Because of the importance of early intervention in altering lifelong health trajectories, consistent BMI monitoring is essential in identifying high-risk children.

Body size matters in provision of help: factors related to children's willingness to help overweight peers.

Although children who are overweight may be vulnerable to negative social experiences, little is known about whether children will offer help to peers who are overweight. The present study examined whether children would offer aid to peers who are overweight with everyday tasks (such as picking up toys). This study also examined whether weight stereotypes and intentions to befriend these peers are related to intentions to help. Fifty-one children, aged 4-8, were interviewed about their stereotypes and behavioral intentions. Findings revealed that children were less likely to help overweight than average weight peers. Children who did not hold positive stereotypes about thinness and those who chose to play with overweight peers were more likely to help peers who are overweight. Results suggest that weight prejudice is pervasive and that children who are overweight might not be offered aid in classroom settings, highlighting the need for early intervention.

Deconstructing the concept of the healthy eater self-schematic: relations to dietary intake, weight and eating cognitions.

This study investigated differences in dietary intake, weight status, food preoccupation, and attributions about healthy eating lapses between individuals classified as healthy eater self-schematics and nonschematics. The study also assessed whether the separate dimensions of the self-schema construct (self-description as a healthy eater and perceived importance of being a healthy eater to self-image) are related to these health outcomes. College students (N=125; 82% female) completed questionnaires assessing healthy eater self-schema status, dietary intake, weight status, food preoccupation, and lapse attributions. Results revealed that females who were classified as healthy eater self-schematics ate more fruits and vegetables, ate less junk food and had lower BMIs than nonschematics. Healthy eater self-schematics also engaged in more positive thoughts and fewer negative thoughts about food, made less stable attributions about lapses in healthy eating and endorsed more personal control over lapses. When the two dimensions of the self-schema were examined separately, self-description appeared to be more related to these outcomes than perceived importance.

Parental feeding practices in the United States and in France: relationships with child's characteristics and parent's eating behavior.

Given the role of parental feeding practices in establishing children's eating habits, understanding sources of individual differences in feeding practices is important. This study examined the role of several psychological variables (ie, parental perceived responsibility for child's eating, parental perceptions of the child's weight, and parents' own eating patterns) in individual differences in a variety of feeding practices. Parents of preschool-aged children completed surveys in a cross-sectional study. Two cultural contexts (ie, United States, n=97 parents; and France, n=122 parents) were included to assess the cross-cultural generalizability of the findings. Monitoring was associated with parental perceived responsibility for child's eating, parental restrained eating, and parents' desire for their child to be thinner, especially in France. Restriction for weight reasons was more prevalent in France and was associated with parents' perceived responsibility for child's eating, perception of child's body weight, and parental restrained eating. Parental use of foods for nonnutritive purposes was more prevalent in the United States and was associated with parental uncontrolled or emotional eating. Finally, parents' perceived responsibility for child's eating was strongly related to child control over feeding, teaching about nutrition, encouragement of balance, and variety and modeling. These associations between psychological variables and parental feeding practices shed light on the sources of individual differences in feeding practices and suggest possible opportunities for intervention when feeding practices are suboptimal.

Individual differences in the anti-fat attitudes of preschool-children: the importance of perceived body size.

Preschool-age children hold negative attitudes toward overweight peers (i.e., anti-fat attitudes), but little is known about individual differences in these attitudes. The current study investigated actual weight status and perceived body size in relation to preschool-age children's anti-fat attitudes. Sixty-nine 4-6 year-olds (61% girls) were individually interviewed about their body size perceptions using a figure rating scale and anti-fat attitudes using multiple methods (including an adjective rating scale and ratings of acceptability for different body shapes). Results suggested that children's perceived body size, not actual body size, was related to their attitudes about an overweight figure and the number of figures rated as acceptable. Children who perceived themselves as heavier held fewer anti-fat attitudes. Perceived and actual body size ratings were not related to ratings of a thin figure. This study suggests the importance of examining children's body image, particularly their perceived body size, in understanding their anti-fat attitudes.

Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire: validation of a new measure of parental feeding practices.

OBJECTIVE: Measures of parents' feeding practices have focused primarily on parental control of feeding and have not sufficiently measured other potentially important practices. The current study validates a new measure of feeding practices, the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ). METHOD: The first study validated a 9-factor feeding practice scale for mothers and fathers. In the second study, open-ended questions solicited feeding practices from parents to develop a more comprehensive measure of parental feeding. The third study validated an expanded 12-factor feeding practices measure with mothers of children from 2 to 8 years of age. RESULTS: The CFPQ appears to be an adequate tool for measuring the feeding practices of parents of young children. CONCLUSIONS: Researchers, clinicians, and health educators might use this measure to better understand how parents feed their children, the factors that contribute to these practices, and the implications of these practices on children's eating behaviors.

The relationship between parents' anti-fat attitudes and restrictive feeding.

OBJECTIVE: Anti-fat prejudice is a common attitude in our society, and it has implications for those who hold and are targets of this prejudice. Little is known, however, about how parents' anti-fat attitudes impact the ways they feed their young children. We hypothesized that parents' attitudes about weight would predict parents' restrictive feeding practices above and beyond the effects of the child's actual weight and the parents' concern about child overweight. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: A total of 126 mothers and 102 fathers returned surveys about anti-fat attitudes, feeding practices (restriction for weight and restriction for health), and concern about child overweight. RESULTS: Parental concern about child overweight was related to higher restrictive feeding practices for both mothers and fathers. Parents' anti-fat attitudes also predicted restrictive feeding above and beyond the effects of parent and child BMI and parental concern about overweight. DISCUSSION: These findings suggest that parents' anti-fat attitudes impact the way they feed their children.

Do preschool children understand what it means to "diet," and do they do it?

OBJECTIVE: The current study determined what preschool children understand about dieting and the extent to which they report engaging in dieting behaviors. METHOD: Forty-two children (mean age = 5.2 years) were interviewed about their understanding of the word "diet" and about food restraint behaviors. Children's height and weight were recorded. RESULTS: Only 17% of the children provided an accurate definition of the word diet (i.e., an answer having to do with the foods a person eats). None of the children mentioned weight loss in their definition. Children reported occasional use of restraint behaviors. Girls and heavier children reported more use of restraint. DISCUSSION: Children did not have a clear understanding of the word diet. Thus, the use of the word diet should be avoided when assessing eating behaviors in preschool children. Individual differences in reported dieting behaviors were in the expected directions, suggesting validity in these reports and early emerging social pressures to diet.

Attitude and peer influences on adolescent substance use: the moderating effect of age, sex, and substance.

Many studies have suggested the importance of peer influence and personal attitudes (e.g., expectancies, resistance self-efficacy, and perceived harm) in predicting adolescent use of illegal substances. The present study examined these variables in relation to self-reported use of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana for 213 younger adolescents (12-15 years old) and 219 older adolescents (18-22 years old). A series of logistic regressions was performed to assess variables relating to use of each substance by age group and gender. Friends' use was significantly related to substance use for both age groups, both sexes, and all substances examined in this study. Perceived harm was not significantly related to use for any group. Finally, outcome expectancies and resistance self-efficacy were differentially related to use depending on age, gender, and substance. The implications of these findings for prevention programming and future research are also discussed.