Oxygen Vacancies Driven by Co in the Deeply Charged State Inducing Intragranular Cracking of Ni-Rich Cathodes.

Intragranular cracking within the material structure of Ni-rich (LiNixCoyMn1 - x - y, x ≥0.9) cathodes greatly threatens cathode integrity and causes capacity degradation, yet its atomic-scale incubation mechanism is not completely elucidated. Notably, the physicochemical properties of component elements fundamentally determine the material structure of cathodes. Herein, a diffusion-controlled incubation mechanism of intragranular cracking is unraveled, and an underlying correlation model with Co element is established. Multi-dimensional analysis reveals that oxygen vacancies appear due to the charge compensation from highly oxidizing Co ions in the deeply charged state, driving the transition metal migration to Li layer and layered to rock-salt phase transition. The local accumulation of two accompanying tensile strains collaborates to promote the nucleation and growth of intragranular cracks along the fragile rock-salt phase domain on (003) plane. This study focuses on the potential risks posed by Co to the architectural and thermal stability of Ni-rich cathodes and is dedicated to the compositional design and performance optimization of Ni-rich cathodes.

Negative Lattice Expansion in an O3-Type Transition-Metal Oxide Cathode for Highly Stable Sodium-Ion Batteries.

The sodium extraction/insertion in layered transition-metal oxide (TMO) cathode materials are typically accompanied by slab sliding and lattice changes, leading to microstructure destruction and capacity decay. Herein, negative lattice expansion is observed in an O3 type Ni-based layered cathode of Na0.9 Ni0.32 Zn0.08 Fe0.1 Mn0.3 Ti0.2 O2 upon Na+ extraction. It is attributed to the weak Zn2+ -O2- orbital hybridization and increased electron density of the surrounding oxygen for reinforced interlayer O-O repulsive force. This enables gliding of TMO slabs for the intergrowth phase transition of P3→OP2 to alleviate lattice strain with moderate lattice shrinkage, which exhibits general interslab spacings and volume changes as low as 2.4 % and 1.9 %, respectively. The strong Ti-O bonds accommodate the internal distortion of TMO6 octahedra due to the flexibility of TiO6 octahedra during cycling. These endow a high specific capacity of 144.9 mAh g-1 and excellent cycling performance of pouch-type sodium-ion batteries with 93 % capacity retention after 3600 cycles.

Self-reporting and Biodegradable Thermosetting Solid Polymer Electrolyte.

To date, significant efforts have been dedicated to improve their ionic conductivity, thermal stability, and mechanical strength of solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs). However, direct monitoring of physical and chemical changes in SPEs is still lacking. Moreover, existing thermosetting SPEs are hardly degradable. Herein, by overcoming the limitation predicted by Flory theory, self-reporting and biodegradable thermosetting hyperbranched poly(ß-amino ester)-based SPEs (HPAE-SPEs) are reported. HPAE is successfully synthesized through a well-controlled "A2+B4" Michael addition strategy and then crosslinked it in situ to produce HPAE-SPEs. The multiple tertiary aliphatic amines at the branching sites confer multicolour luminescence to HPAE-SPEs, enabling direct observation of its physical and chemical damage. After use, HPAE-SPEs can be rapidly hydrolysed into non-hazardous ß-amino acids and polyols via self-catalysis. Optimized HPAE-SPE exhibits an ionic conductivity of 1.3×10-4  S/cm at 60 °C, a Na+ transference number ( t N a + ${{t}_{Na}^{+}}$ ) of 0.67, a highly stable sodium plating-stripping behaviour and a low overpotential of ≈190 mV. This study establishes a new paradigm for developing SPEs by engineering multifunctional polymers. The self-reporting and biodegradable properties would greatly expand the scope of applications for SPEs.

Insights into the Phase Purity and Storage Mechanism of Nonstoichiometric Na3.4 Fe2.4 (PO4 )1.4 P2 O7 Cathode for High-Mass-Loading and High-Power-Density Sodium-Ion Batteries.

Mixed-anion-group Fe-based phosphate materials, such as Na4 Fe3 (PO4 )2 P2 O7 , have emerged as promising cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). However, the synthesis of pure-phase material has remained a challenge, and the phase evolution during sodium (de)intercalation is debating as well. Herein, a solid-solution strategy is proposed to partition Na4 Fe3 (PO4 )2 P2 O7 into 2NaFePO4 ⋅ Na2 FeP2 O7 from the angle of molecular composition. Via regulating the starting ratio of NaFePO4 and Na2 FeP2 O7 during the synthesis process, the nonstoichiometric pure-phase material could be successfully synthesized within a narrow NaFePO4 content between 1.6 and 1.2. Furthermore, the proposed synthesis strategy demonstrates strong applicability that helps to address the impurity issue of Na4 Co3 (PO4 )2 P2 O7 and nonstoichiometric Na3.4 Co2.4 (PO4 )1.4 P2 O7 are evidenced to be the pure phase. The model Na3.4 Fe2.4 (PO4 )1.4 P2 O7 cathode (the content of NaFePO4 equals 1.4) demonstrates exceptional sodium storage performances, including ultrahigh rate capability under 100 C and ultralong cycle life over 14000 cycles. Furthermore, combined measurements of ex situ nuclear magnetic resonance, in situ synchrotron radiation diffraction and X-ray absorption spectroscopy clearly reveal a two-phase transition during Na+ extraction/insertion, which provides a new insight into the ionic storage process for such kind of mixed-anion-group Fe-based phosphate materials and pave the way for the development of high-power sodium-ion batteries.

Probing Particle-Carbon/Binder Degradation Behavior in Fatigued Layered Cathode Materials through Machine Learning Aided Diffraction Tomography.

Understanding how reaction heterogeneity impacts cathode materials during Li-ion battery (LIB) electrochemical cycling is pivotal for unraveling their electrochemical performance. Yet, experimentally verifying these reactions has proven to be a challenge. To address this, we employed scanning µ-XRD computed tomography to scrutinize Ni-rich layered LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2 (NCM622) and Li-rich layered Li[Li0.2Ni0.2Mn0.6]O2 (LLNMO). By harnessing machine learning (ML) techniques, we scrutinized an extensive dataset of µ-XRD patterns, about 100,000 patterns per slice, to unveil the spatial distribution of crystalline structure and microstrain. Our experimental findings unequivocally reveal the distinct behavior of these materials. NCM622 exhibits structural degradation and lattice strain intricately linked to the size of secondary particles. Smaller particles and the surface of larger particles in contact with the carbon/binder matrix experience intensified structural fatigue after long-term cycling. Conversely, both the surface and bulk of LLNMO particles endure severe strain-induced structural degradation during high-voltage cycling, resulting in significant voltage decay and capacity fade. This work holds the potential to fine-tune the microstructure of advanced layered materials and manipulate composite electrode construction in order to enhance the performance of LIBs and beyond.

Reversible Metal and Ligand Redox Chemistry in Two-Dimensional Iron-Organic Framework for Sustainable Lithium-Ion Batteries.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are emerging as attractive electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries, owing to their fascinating features of sustainable resources, tunable chemical components, flexible molecular skeletons, and renewability. However, they are faced with a limited number of redox-active sites and unstable molecular frameworks during electrochemical processes. Herein, we design a novel two-dimensional (2D) iron(III)-tetraamino-benzoquinone (Fe-TABQ) with dual redox centers of Fe cations and TABQ ligands for high-capacity and stable lithium storage. It is constructed of square-planar Fe-N2O2 linkages and phenylenediamine building blocks, between which the Fe-TABQ chains are connected by multiple hydrogen bonds, and then featured as an extended π-d-conjugated 2D structure. The redox chemistry of both Fe3+ cations and TABQ anions is revealed to render its remarkable specific capacity of 251.1 mAh g-1. Benefiting from the intrinsic robust Fe-N(O) bonds and reinforced Li-N(O) bonds during cycling, Fe-TABQ delivers high capacity retentions over 95% after 200 cycles at various current densities. This work will enlighten more investigations for the molecular designs of advanced MOF-based electrode materials.

Homeostatic Solid Solution in Layered Transition-Metal Oxide Cathodes of Sodium-Ion Batteries.

Two-phase transformation reaction is ubiquitous in solid-state electrochemistry; however, it usually involves inferior structure rearrangement upon extraction and insertion of large-sized Na+, thus leading to severe local strain, cracks, and capacity decay in sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). Here, a homeostatic solid solution reaction is reported in the layered cathode material P'2-Na0.653Ni0.081Mn0.799Ti0.120O2 during sodiation and desodiation. It is induced by the synergistic incorporation of Ni and Ti for the reinforced O(2p)-Mn(3d-eg*) hybridization, which leads to mitigated Jahn-Teller distortion of MnO6 octahedra, contracted transition-metal oxide slabs, and enlarged Na layer spacings. The thermodynamically favorable solid solution pathway rewards the SIBs with excellent cycling stability (87.2% capacity retention after 500 cycles) and rate performance (100.5 mA h g-1 at 2500 mA g-1). The demonstrated reaction pathway will open a new avenue for rational designing of cathode materials for SIBs and beyond.

Electrochemical Enhancement of Lithium-Ion Diffusion in Polypyrrole-Modified Sulfurized Polyacrylonitrile Nanotubes for Solid-to-Solid Free-Standing Lithium-Sulfur Cathodes.

The energy density of lithium-sulfurized polyacrylonitrile (Li-SPAN) batteries has chronically suffered from low sulfur content. Although a free-standing electrode can significantly reduce noncapacity mass contribution, the slow bulk reaction kinetics still constrain the electrochemical performance. In this regard, a novel electrochemically active additive, polypyrrole (PPy), is introduced to construct PAN nanotubes as a sulfur carrier. This hollow channel greatly facilitates charge transport within the electrode and increases the sulfur content. Both electrochemical tests and simulations show that the SPANPPy-1% cathode possesses a larger lithium-ion diffusion coefficient and a more homogeneous phase interface than the SPAN cathode. Consequently, significantly improved capabilities and rate properties are achieved, as well as decent exportations under high-sulfur-loading or lean-electrolyte conditions. In-situ and semi-situ characterizations are further performed to demonstrate the nucleation growth of lithium sulfide and the evolution of the electrode surface structure. This type of electrochemically active additive provides a well-supported implementation of high-energy-density Li-S batteries.

Electrochemical Investigation of Calcium Substituted Monoclinic Li3 V2 (PO4 )3 Negative Electrode Materials for Sodium- and Potassium-Ion Batteries.

Herein, the electrochemical properties and reaction mechanism of Li3-2 x Cax V2 (PO4 )3 /C (x = 0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5) as negative electrode materials for sodium-ion/potassium-ion batteries (SIBs/PIBs) are investigated. All samples undergo a mixed contribution of diffusion-controlled and pseudocapacitive-type processes in SIBs and PIBs via Trasatti Differentiation Method, while the latter increases with Ca content increase. Among them, Li3 V2 (PO4 )3 /C exhibits the highest reversible capacity in SIBs and PIBs, while Ca1.5 V2 (PO4 )3 /C shows the best rate performance with a capacity retention of 46% at 20 C in SIBs and 47% at 10 C in PIBs. This study demonstrates that the specific capacity of this type of material in SIBs and PIBs does not increase with the Ca-content as previously observed in lithium-ion system, but the stability and performance at a high C-rate can be improved by replacing Li+ with Ca2+ . This indicates that the insertion of different monovalent cations (Na+ /K+ ) can strongly influence the redox reaction and structure evolution of the host materials, due to the larger ion size of Na+ and K+ and their different kinetic properties with respect to Li+ . Furthermore, the working mechanism of both LVP/C and Ca1.5 V2 (PO4 )3 /C in SIBs are elucidated via in operando synchrotron diffraction and in operando X-ray absorption spectroscopy.

Origin and Regulation of Interface Fusion during Synthesis of Single-Crystal Ni-Rich Cathodes.

Interface fusion plays a key role in constructing Ni-based single-crystal cathodes, and is governed by the atomic migration related to kinetics. However, the interfacial atom migration path and its control factors are lack of clearly understanding. Herein, we systematically probe the solid-state synthesis mechanism of single-crystal LiNi0.92 Co0.04 Mn0.04 O2 , including the effects of precursor size, Li/transition metal (TM) ratio and sintering temperature on the structure. Multi-dimensional analysis unravels that thermodynamics drives interface atoms migration through intermediate state (i.e., cation mixing phase) to induce grain boundary fusion. Moreover, we demonstrate that smaller precursor size (<6 µm), lager Li/TM ratio (>1.0) and higher temperature (≥810 °C) are conducive to promote the growth of the intermediate state due to reaction kinetics enhancement, and ultimately strengthen the atomic migration-induced interface fusion.

Improving Low-temperature Performance and Stability of Na2 Ti6 O13 Anodes by the Ti-O Spring Effect through Nb-doping.

Na2 Ti6 O13 (NTO) with high safety has been regarded as a promising anode candidate for sodium-ion batteries. In the present study, integrated modification of migration channels broadening, charge density re-distribution, and oxygen vacancies regulation are realized in case of Nb-doping and have obtained significantly enhanced cycling performance with 92 % reversible capacity retained after 3000 cycles at 3000 mA g-1 . Moreover, unexpected low-temperature performance with a high discharge capacity of 143 mAh g-1 at 100 mA g-1 under -15 °C is also achieved in the full cell. Theoretical investigation suggests that Nb preferentially replaces Ti3 sites, which effectively improves structural stability and lowers the diffusion energy barrier. What's more important, both the in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and in situ Raman furtherly confirm the robust spring effect of the Ti-O bond, making special charge compensation mechanism and respective regulation strategy to conquer the sluggish transport kinetics and low conductivity, which plays a key role in promoting electrochemical performance.

A Disordered Rubik's Cube-Inspired Framework for Sodium-Ion Batteries with Ultralong Cycle Lifespan.

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) with fast-charge capability and long lifespan could be applied in various sustainable energy storage systems, from personal devices to grid storage. Inspired by the disordered Rubik's cube, here, we report that the high-entropy (HE) concept can lead to a very substantial improvement in the sodium storage properties of hexacyanoferrate (HCF). An example of HE-HCF has been synthesized as a proof of concept, which has achieved impressive cycling stability over 50 000 cycles and an outstanding fast-charging capability up to 75 C. Remarkable air stability and all-climate performance are observed. Its quasi-zero-strain reaction mechanism and high sodium diffusion coefficient have been measured and analyzed by multiple in situ techniques and density functional theory calculations. This strategy provides new insights into the development of advanced electrodes and provides the opportunity to tune electrochemical performance by tailoring the atomic composition.

Long-Range Cationic Disordering Induces two Distinct Degradation Pathways in Co-Free Ni-Rich Layered Cathodes.

Ni-rich layered oxides are one of the most attractive cathode materials in high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries, their degradation mechanisms are still not completely elucidated. Herein, we report a strong dependence of degradation pathways on the long-range cationic disordering of Co-free Ni-rich Li1-m (Ni0.94 Al0.06 )1+m O2 (NA). Interestingly, a disordered layered phase with lattice mismatch can be easily formed in the near-surface region of NA particles with very low cation disorder (NA-LCD, m≤0.06) over electrochemical cycling, while the layered structure is basically maintained in the core of particles forming a "core-shell" structure. Such surface reconstruction triggers a rapid capacity decay during the first 100 cycles between 2.7 and 4.3 V at 1 C or 3 C. On the contrary, the local lattice distortions are gradually accumulated throughout the whole NA particles with higher degrees of cation disorder (NA-HCD, 0.06≤m≤0.15) that lead to a slow capacity decay upon cycling.

Structural Origin of Suppressed Voltage Decay in Single-Crystalline Li-Rich Layered Li[Li0.2 Ni0.2 Mn0.6 ]O2 Cathodes.

Lithium- and manganese-rich layered oxides (LMLOs, ≥ 250 mAh g-1 ) with polycrystalline morphology always suffer from severe voltage decay upon cycling because of the anisotropic lattice strain and oxygen release induced chemo-mechanical breakdown. Herein, a Co-free single-crystalline LMLO, that is, Li[Li0.2 Ni0.2 Mn0.6 ]O2 (LLNMO-SC), is prepared via a Li+ /Na+ ion-exchange reaction. In situ synchrotron-based X-ray diffraction (sXRD) results demonstrate that relatively small changes in lattice parameters and reduced average micro-strain are observed in LLNMO-SC compared to its polycrystalline counterpart (LLNMO-PC) during the charge-discharge process. Specifically, the as-synthesized LLNMO-SC exhibits a unit cell volume change as low as 1.1% during electrochemical cycling. Such low strain characteristics ensure a stable framework for Li-ion insertion/extraction, which considerably enhances the structural stability of LLNMO during long-term cycling. Due to these peculiar benefits, the average discharge voltage of LLNMO-SC decreases by only ≈0.2 V after 100 cycles at 28 mA g-1 between 2.0 and 4.8 V, which is much lower than that of LLNMO-PC (≈0.5 V). Such a single-crystalline strategy offers a promising solution to constructing stable high-energy lithium-ion batteries (LIBs).

Activating Inert Surface Pt Single Atoms via Subsurface Doping for Oxygen Reduction Reaction.

The performance of single-atom catalysts strongly depends on their particular coordination environments in the near-surface region. Herein, we discover that engineering extra Pt single atoms in the subsurface (Ptsubsurf) can significantly enhance the catalytic efficiency of surface Pt single atoms toward the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). We experimentally and theoretically investigated the effects of the Ptsubsurf single atoms implanted in different positions of the subsurface of Co particles. The local environments and catalytic properties of surface Pt1 are highly tunable via Ptsubsurf doping. Specifically, the obtained Pt1@Co/NC catalyst displays a remarkable performance for ORR, achieving mass activity of 4.2 mA µgPt-1 (28 times higher than that of commercial Pt/C) at 0.9 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) in 0.1 M HClO4 solution with high stability over 30000 cycles.

A Rational Biphasic Tailoring Strategy Enabling High-Performance Layered Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries.

Layered oxide cathodes usually exhibit high compositional diversity, thus providing controllable electrochemical performance for Na-ion batteries. These abundant components lead to complicated structural chemistry, closely affecting the stacking preference, phase transition and Na+ kinetics. With this perspective, we explore the thermodynamically stable phase diagram of various P2/O3 composites based on a rational biphasic tailoring strategy. Then a specific P2/O3 composite is investigated and compared with its monophasic counterparts. A highly reversible structural evolution of P2/O3-P2/O3/P3-P2/P3-P2/Z/O3'-Z/O3' based on the Ni2+ /Ni3.5+ , Fe3+ /Fe4+ and Mn3.8+ /Mn4+ redox couples upon sequential Na extraction/insertion is revealed. The reduced structural strain at the phase boundary alleviates the phase transition and decreases the lattice mismatch during cycling, endowing the biphasic electrode a large reversible capacity of 144 mAh g-1 with the energy density approaching 514 Wh kg-1 .

Streamline Sulfur Redox Reactions to Achieve Efficient Room-Temperature Sodium-Sulfur Batteries.

It is vital to dynamically regulate S activity to achieve efficient and stable room-temperature sodium-sulfur (RT/Na-S) batteries. Herein, we report using cobalt sulfide as an electron reservoir to enhance the activity of sulfur cathodes, and simultaneously combining with cobalt single atoms as double-end binding sites for a stable S conversion process. The rationally constructed CoS2 electron reservoir enables the straight reduction of S to short-chain sodium polysulfides (Na2 S4 ) via a streamlined redox path through electron transfer. Meanwhile, cobalt single atoms synergistically work with the electron reservoir to reinforce the streamlined redox path, which immobilize in situ formed long-chain products and catalyze their conversion, thus realizing high S utilization and sustainable cycling stability. The as-developed sulfur cathodes exhibit a superior rate performance of 443 mAh g-1 at 5 A g-1 with a high cycling capacity retention of 80 % after 5000 cycles at 5 A g-1 .

Activating a Multielectron Reaction of NASICON-Structured Cathodes toward High Energy Density for Sodium-Ion Batteries.

The increasing demand to efficiently store and utilize the electricity from renewable energy resources in a sustainable way has boosted the request for sodium-ion battery technology due to the high abundance of sodium sources worldwide. Na superionic conductor (NASICON) structured cathodes with a robust polyanionic framework have been intriguing because of their open 3D structure and superior thermal stability. The ever-increasing demand for higher energy densities with NASICON-structured cathodes motivates us to activate multielectron reactions, thus utilizing the third sodium ion toward higher voltage and larger capacity, both of which have been the bottlenecks for commercializing sodium-ion batteries. A doping strategy with Cr inspired by first-principles calculations enables the activation of multielectron redox reactions of the redox couples V2+/V3+, V3+/V4+, and V4+/V5+, resulting in remarkably improved energy density even in comparison to the layer structured oxides and Prussian blue analogues. This work also comprehensively clarifies the role of the Cr dopant during sodium storage and the valence electron transition process of both V and Cr. Our findings highlight the importance of a broadly applicable doping strategy for achieving multielectron reactions of NASICON-type cathodes with higher energy densities in sodium-ion batteries.

Dielectric Relaxation and Magnetic Structure of A-Site-Ordered Perovskite Oxide Semiconductor CaCu3Fe2Ta2O12.

A new perovskite oxide semiconductor, CaCu3Fe2Ta2O12, was synthesized through a high-pressure and high-temperature approach. The compound possesses an Im3̅ space group, where it crystallizes to an A-site-ordered but B-site partial ordered quadruple perovskite structure. Spin ordering occurs around 150 K owing to the antiferromagnetic coupling between Fe3+ spins and ferromagnetic coupling between Cu2+ spins. The room-temperature dielectric permittivity of CaCu3Fe2Ta2O12 was measured to be approximately 2500 at 1 kHz. More importantly, isothermal frequency-dielectric spectroscopy demonstrates the existence of two dielectric relaxations. Debye-like relaxation is attributed to charge carriers trapped among the oxygen vacancies at low temperatures and Maxwell-Wagner polarization relaxation at high temperatures. CaCu3Fe2Ta2O12 is a new magnetic semiconductor, where A-site ordering is intercorrelated with second-order Jahn-Teller distortion. These findings offer opportunities to design novel perovskite oxides with attractive magnetic and dielectric properties.

Superior sodium storage of Na3V(PO3)3N nanofibers as a high voltage cathode for flexible sodium-ion battery devices.

The cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries are always the key issues for the ultimate success of large-scale energy storage systems. The nitrogen-dope polyanionic type material is one of the important high voltage candidates. Herein, we have developed a simple and facile method to synthesize a high voltage cathode material, Na3V(PO3)3N nanofibers, via an electrospinning approach. Unexpected excellent rate performance and cyclability have been demonstrated, with a discharge capacity of 61.5 mAh g-1achieved at a current density of 4 A g-1. Capacity retention of 86.7% could be obtained at 0.8 A g-1over 2000 cycles. Density functional theory calculations reveal that this material has an abnormal flat band characteristic, and its high voltage platform can be explained by the dominant V d-orbital contribution to the density of states at the Fermi level.