The impact of physical activity on progression-free and overall survival in metastatic breast cancer based on molecular subtype.

BACKGROUND: Although adequate physical activity has been shown to be beneficial in early breast cancer, evidence in metastatic breast cancer is sparse and contradictory, which could be related to distinct effects of physical activity on the different molecular cancer subtypes. Therefore, we here evaluated the effect of physical activity on progression-free and overall survival (PFS, OS) in metastatic breast cancer, specifically looking at molecular subtypes. METHODS: International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) questionnaires, filled out by patients enrolled in the prospective PRAEGNANT registry (NCT02338167; n = 1,270) were used to calculate metabolic equivalent task (MET) minutes, which were subsequently categorized into low (n = 138), moderate (n = 995) or high IPAQ categories (n = 137). Cox regression analyses were used to evaluate the impact of IPAQ categories and its interaction with molecular subtypes on PFS and OS. RESULTS: Patient and tumor characteristics were equally distributed across IPAQ categories. HER2pos, HRpos and TNBC were present in 23.1%, 65.7% and 11.2% of patients, respectively. IPAQ scores did not have an impact on PFS and OS in addition to established prognostic factors, either overall or in particular molecular subtypes (PFS: p = 0.33 and OS: p = 0.08, likelihood ratio test). Exploratory analyses showed higher overall survival rates for high IPAQ categories compared to low/moderate IPAQ categories in luminal B-like breast cancer. CONCLUSIONS: Self-reported physical activity using the IPAQ questionnaire did not significantly affect PFS or OS in patients suffering from metastatic breast cancer. Nevertheless, some hypothesis-generating differences between molecular subtypes could be observed, which may be interesting to evaluate further.

Correlation of RANK and RANKL with mammographic density in primary breast cancer patients.

PURPOSE: The receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B (RANK) and its ligand (RANKL) have been shown to promote proliferation of the breast and breast carcinogenesis. The objective of this analysis was to investigate whether tumor-specific RANK and RANKL expression in patients with primary breast cancer is associated with high percentage mammographic density (PMD), which is a known breast cancer risk factor. METHODS: Immunohistochemical staining of RANK and RANKL was performed in tissue microarrays (TMAs) from primary breast cancer samples of the Bavarian Breast Cancer Cases and Controls (BBCC) study. For RANK and RANKL expression, histochemical scores (H scores) with a cut-off value of > 0 vs 0 were established. PMD was measured in the contralateral, non-diseased breast. Linear regression models with PMD as outcome were calculated using common predictors of PMD (age at breast cancer diagnosis, body mass index (BMI) and parity) and RANK and RANKL H scores. Additionally, Spearman rank correlations (ρ) between PMD and RANK and RANKL H score were performed. RESULTS: In the final cohort of 412 patients, breast cancer-specific RANK and RANKL expression was not associated with PMD (P = 0.68). There was no correlation between PMD and RANK H score (Spearman's ρ = 0.01, P = 0.87) or RANKL H score (Spearman's ρ = 0.04, P = 0.41). RANK expression was highest in triple-negative tumors, followed by HER2-positive, luminal B-like and luminal A-like tumors, while no subtype-specific expression of RANKL was found. CONCLUSION: Results do not provide evidence for an association of RANK and RANKL expression in primary breast cancer with PMD.

Ex Vivo Chromosomal Radiosensitivity Testing in Patients with Pathological Germline Variants in Breast Cancer High-Susceptibility Genes BReast CAncer 1 and BReast CAncer 2.

BACKGROUND: Individual radiosensitivity is an important factor in the occurrence of undesirable consequences of radiotherapy. The potential for increased radiosensitivity has been linked to highly penetrant heterozygous mutations in DNA repair genes such as BRCA1 and BRCA2. By studying the chromosomal radiosensitivity of BRCA1/2 mutation carriers compared to the general population, we study whether increased chromosomal radiation sensitivity is observed in patients with BRCA1/2 variants. METHODS: Three-color-fluorescence in situ hybridization was performed on ex vivo-irradiated peripheral blood lymphocytes from 64 female patients with a heterozygous germline BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. Aberrations in chromosomes #1, #2 and #4 were analyzed. Mean breaks per metaphase (B/M) served as the parameter for chromosomal radiosensitivity. The results were compared with chromosomal radiosensitivity in a cohort of generally healthy individuals and patients with rectal cancer or breast cancer. RESULTS: Patients with BRCA1/2 mutations (n = 64; B/M 0.47) overall showed a significantly higher chromosomal radiosensitivity than general healthy individuals (n = 211; B/M 0.41) and patients with rectal cancer (n = 379; B/M 0.44) and breast cancer (n = 147; B/M 0.45) without proven germline mutations. Chromosomal radiosensitivity varied depending on the locus of the BRCA1/2 mutation. CONCLUSIONS: BRCA1/2 mutations result in slightly increased chromosomal sensitivity to radiation. A few individual patients have a marked increase in radiation sensitivity. Therefore, these patients are at a higher risk for adverse therapeutic consequences.

Return of individual genomic research results within the PRAEGNANT multicenter registry study.

PURPOSE: The PRAEGNANT study is a registry study for metastatic breast cancer patients, focusing on biomarker detection. Recently, within this study, genetic alterations in 37 breast cancer predisposition genes were analyzed and genetic findings were detected for 396 participants. The aim of this project was to return genetic results to the physicians and to analyze actions taken (e.g., disclosure of results to patients, validation of results, clinical impact, and impact on the patient's quality of life) using a questionnaire. METHODS: 235 questionnaires were sent out to the study centers, with each questionnaire representing one patient with a genetic finding. The questionnaire consisted of twelve questions in the German language, referring to the disclosure of results, validation of test results, and their impact on treatment decisions and on the patient's quality of life. RESULTS: 135 (57.5%) questionnaires were completed. Of these, 46 (34.1%) stated that results were returned to the patients. In 80.0% (N = 36) of cases where results were returned, the patient had not been aware of the finding previously. For 27 patients (64.3%), genetic findings had not been validated beforehand. All validation procedures (N = 15) were covered by the patients' health insurance. For 11 (25.0%) patients, physicians reported that the research results influenced current or future decision-making on treatment, and for 37.8% (N = 17) the results influenced whether family members will be genetically tested. CONCLUSION: This study provides novel insights into the return of research results and into clinical and personal benefits of disclosure of genetic findings within a German registry.

Placental thromboinflammation impairs embryonic survival by reducing placental thrombomodulin expression.

Excess platelet activation by extracellular vesicles (EVs) results in trophoblast inflammasome activation, interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß) activation, preeclampsia (PE), and partial embryonic lethality. Embryonic thrombomodulin (TM) deficiency, which causes embryonic lethality hallmarked by impaired trophoblast proliferation, has been linked with maternal platelet activation. We hypothesized that placental TM loss, platelet activation, and embryonic lethality are mechanistically linked to trophoblast inflammasome activation. Here, we uncover unidirectional interaction of placental inflammasome activation and reduced placental TM expression: although inflammasome inhibition did not rescue TM-null embryos from lethality, the inflammasome-dependent cytokine IL-1ß reduced trophoblast TM expression and impaired pregnancy outcome. EVs, known to induce placental inflammasome activation, reduced trophoblast TM expression and proliferation. Trophoblast TM expression correlated negatively with IL-1ß expression and positively with platelet numbers and trophoblast proliferation in human PE placentae, implying translational relevance. Soluble TM treatment or placental TM restoration ameliorated the EV-induced PE-like phenotype in mice, preventing placental thromboinflammation and embryonic death. The lethality of TM-null embryos is not a consequence of placental NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Conversely, EV-induced placental inflammasome activation reduces placental TM expression, promoting placental and embryonic demise. These data identify a new function of placental TM in PE and suggest that soluble TM limits thromboinflammatory pregnancy complications.

No evidence of the unfolded protein response in the placenta of two rodent models of preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction.

In humans, intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and preeclampsia (PE) are associated with induction of the unfolded protein response (UPR) and increased placental endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Especially in PE, oxidative stress occurs relative to the severity of maternal vascular underperfusion (MVU) of the placental bed. On the premise that understanding the mechanisms of placental dysfunction could lead to targeted therapeutic options for human IUGR and PE, we investigated the roles of the placental UPR and oxidative stress in two rodent models of these human gestational pathologies. We employed a rat IUGR model of gestational maternal protein restriction, as well as an endothelial nitric oxide synthase knockout mouse model (eNOS-/-) of PE/IUGR. Placental expression of UPR members was analyzed via qRT-PCR (Grp78, Calnexin, Perk, Chop, Atf6, and Ern1), immunohistochemistry, and Western blotting (Calnexin, ATF6, GRP78, CHOP, phospho-eIF2α, and phospho-IRE1). Oxidative stress was determined via Western blotting (3-nitrotyrosine and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal). Both animal models showed a significant reduction of fetal and placental weight. These effects did not induce placental UPR. In contrast to human data, results from our rodent models suggest retention of placental plasticity in the setting of ER stress under an adverse gestational environment. Oxidative stress was significantly increased only in female IUGR rat placentas, suggesting a sexually dimorphic response to maternal malnutrition. Our study advances understanding of the involvement of the placental UPR in IUGR and PE. Moreover, it emphasizes the appropriate choice of animal models researching various aspects of these pregnancy complications.

Comparison of methods for isolation and quantification of circulating cell-free DNA from patients with endometriosis.

RESEARCH QUESTION: Which is the optimal extraction method for isolating and quantifying circulating cell-free DNA (ccfDNA) from patients with endometriosis? Endometriosis is a common benign disease, associated with pain, infertility and reduced quality of life. Endometriosis is also a known risk factor for various cancers. Robust biomarkers for early detection and prediction of prognosis, however, are lacking. CcfDNA is an easy to obtain biomarker associated with prognosis of cancer patients and enables non-invasive analysis of somatic mutations. Recently, elevated levels of ccfDNA were detected in patients with endometriosis. DESIGN: Two different ccfDNA extraction methods were compared: Maxwell RSC ccfDNA plasma kit (Maxwell) and QiAamp minElute ccfDNA mini kit (QIAamp). The ccfDNA and circulating mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) quantities from 34 patients diagnosed with endometriosis were analysed. Fluorometric measurement and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) of short and long ALU and mtDNA fragments were used to quantiy ccfDNA. RESULTS: The yield of ccfDNA isolated with the Maxwell method was significantly higher compared with the QIAamp method (P < 0.0001). Integrity of ccfDNA was significantly higher in the QIAamp isolate (P < 0.0001). Recovered mtDNA was not significantly different between both extraction methods used. CONCLUSIONS: The choice of extraction method can significantly influence the ccfDNA output and integrity. Both methods, however, enabled isolation of sufficient ccfDNA for further downstream applications. With this approach, isolation of ccfDNA could enable the non-invasive detection and analysis of somatic mutation within endometriosis tissue.

Genetic variations in estrogen and progesterone pathway genes in preeclampsia patients and controls in Bavaria.

PURPOSE: Hypertensive pregnancy disorders and preeclampsia are major causes of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Many different organs are involved in the diseases' clinical phenotype. The underlying mechanism is still unknown, with a possible genetic component. This case-control study investigated effects on the risk of preeclampsia of genetic variations (single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs) in the estrogen and progesterone pathway genes. METHODS: The study included 167 patients with preeclampsia and 115 healthy controls from the "Franconian Maternal Health Evaluation Studies" (FRAMES). All patients completed an epidemiological questionnaire, data from which were correlated with prospective data on pregnancy and labor. DNA was isolated from blood samples and genotyping was done by PCR. Variants in the aromatase gene CYP19A1 (rs10046, rs4646), progesterone receptor gene (rs1042838, rs10895068), and estrogen receptor-α gene (rs488133) were examined, and the genotype distribution in the two groups was analyzed statistically. RESULTS: A significant difference in the distribution frequency of genotypes between preeclampsia patients and controls was identified in one of the five SNPs. For rs10895068 in the progesterone receptor gene, genotype G/A was significantly more frequent among cases than controls (P = 0.023). No significant differences between the two cohorts were found in the other SNPs. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed a significant association between only one SNP in the progesterone receptor and preeclampsia. Other studies have also noted genetic aspects of preeclampsia. The underlying mechanism and causal relationship are not yet known, and further research is needed to explain the extent of genetic variations and the causal relationship in preeclampsia.

Influence of labor on direct and indirect determinants of placental 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity.

PURPOSE: Labor is a complex process involving multiple para-, auto- and endocrine cascades. The interaction of cortisol, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and progesterone is essential. The action of cortisol on the human feto-placental unit is regulated by 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11ß-HSD2/HSD11B2) that converts cortisol into inactive cortisone. The majority of studies on the assessment of placental 11ß-HSD2 function determined indirect activity parameters. It remains elusive if indirect measurements correlate with enzymatic function and if these parameters are affected by potential confounders (e.g., mode of delivery). Thus, we compared determinants of indirect 11ß-HSD2 tissue activity with its direct enzymatic turnover rate in placental samples from spontaneous births and cesarean (C)-sections. METHODS: Using LC-MS/MS, we determined CRH, cortisol, cortisone, progesterone and 17-hydroxy(OH)-progesterone in human term placentas (spontaneous birth vs. C-section, n = 5 each) and measured the enzymatic glucocorticoid conversion rates in placental microsomes. Expression of HSD11B1, 2 and CRH was determined via qRT-PCR in the same samples. RESULTS: Cortisol-cortisone ratio correlated with direct microsomal enzymatic turnover. While this observation seemed independent of sampling site, a strong influence of mode of delivery on tissue steroids was observed. The mRNA expression of HSD11B2 correlated with indirect and direct cortisol turnover rates in C-section placentas only. In contrast to C-sections, CRH, cortisol and cortisone levels were significantly increased in placental samples following spontaneous birth. CONCLUSION: Labor involves a series of complex hormonal processes including activation of placental CRH and glucocorticoid metabolism. This has to be taken into account when selecting human cohorts for comparative analysis of placental steroids.

Procoagulant Extracellular Vesicles Alter Trophoblast Differentiation in Mice by a Thrombo-Inflammatory Mechanism.

Procoagulant extracellular vesicles (EV) and platelet activation have been associated with gestational vascular complications. EV-induced platelet-mediated placental inflammasome activation has been shown to cause preeclampsia-like symptoms in mice. However, the effect of EV-mediated placental thrombo-inflammation on trophoblast differentiation remains unknown. Here, we identify that the EV-induced thrombo-inflammatory pathway modulates trophoblast morphology and differentiation. EVs and platelets reduce syncytiotrophoblast differentiation while increasing giant trophoblast and spongiotrophoblast including the glycogen-rich cells. These effects are platelet-dependent and mediated by the NLRP3 inflammasome. In humans, inflammasome activation was negatively correlated with trophoblast differentiation marker GCM1 and positively correlated with blood pressure. These data identify a crucial role of EV-induced placental thrombo-inflammation on altering trophoblast differentiation and suggest platelet activation or inflammasome activation as a therapeutic target in order to achieve successful placentation.

Heregulin (HRG) assessment for clinical trial eligibility testing in a molecular registry (PRAEGNANT) in Germany.

BACKGROUND: Eligibility criteria are a critical part of clinical trials, as they define the patient population under investigation. Besides certain patient characteristics, clinical trials often include biomarker testing for eligibility. However, patient-identification mostly relies on the trial site itself and is often a time-consuming procedure, which could result in missing out on potentially eligible patients. Pre-selection of those patients using a registry could facilitate the process of eligibility testing and increase the number of identified patients. One aim with the PRAEGNANT registry (NCT02338167) is to identify patients for therapies based on clinical and molecular data. Here, we report eligibility testing for the SHERBOC trial using the German PRAEGNANT registry. METHODS: Heregulin (HRG) has been reported to identify patients with better responses to therapy with the anti-HER3 monoclonal antibody seribantumab (MM-121). The SHERBOC trial investigated adding seribantumab (MM-121) to standard therapy in patients with advanced HER2-negative, hormone receptor-positive (HR-positive) breast cancer and HRG overexpression. The PRAEGNANT registry was used for identification and tumor testing, helping to link potential HRG positive patients to the trial. Patients enrolled in PRAEGNANT have invasive and metastatic or locally advanced, inoperable breast cancer. Patients eligible for SHERBOC were identified by using the registry. Study aims were to describe the HRG positivity rate, screening procedures, and patient characteristics associated with inclusion and exclusion criteria. RESULTS: Among 2769 unselected advanced breast cancer patients, 650 were HER2-negative, HR-positive and currently receiving first- or second-line treatment, thus potentially eligible for SHERBOC at the end of current treatment; 125 patients also met further clinical eligibility criteria (e.g. menopausal status, ECOG). In the first/second treatment lines, patients selected for SHERBOC based on further eligibility criteria had a more favorable prognosis than those not selected. HRG status was tested in 38 patients, 14 of whom (36.8%) proved to be HRG-positive. CONCLUSION: Using a real-world breast cancer registry allowed identification of potentially eligible patients for SHERBOC focusing on patients with HER3 overexpressing, HR-positive, HER2-negative metastatic breast cancer. This approach may provide insights into differences between patients eligible or non-eligible for clinical trials. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinicaltrials, NCT02338167 , Registered 14 January 2015 - retrospectively registered.

Expression of Retinoid Acid Receptor-Responsive Genes in Rodent Models of Placental Pathology.

In humans, retinoic acid receptor responders (RARRES) have been shown to be altered in third trimester placentas complicated by the pathologies preeclampsia (PE) and PE with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). Currently, little is known about the role of placental Rarres in rodents. Therefore, we examined the localization and expression of Rarres1 and 2 in placentas obtained from a Wistar rat model of isocaloric maternal protein restriction (E18.5, IUGR-like features) and from an eNOS-knockout mouse model (E15 and E18.5, PE-like features). In both rodent models, Rarres1 and 2 were mainly localized in the placental spongiotrophoblast and giant cells. Their placental expression, as well as the expression of the Rarres2 receptor chemokine-like receptor 1 (CmklR1), was largely unaltered at the examined gestational ages in both animal models. Our results have shown that RARRES1 and 2 may have different expression and roles in human and rodent placentas, thereby underlining immanent limitations of comparative interspecies placentology. Further functional studies are required to elucidate the potential involvement of these proteins in early placentogenesis.

Maternal extracellular vesicles and platelets promote preeclampsia via inflammasome activation in trophoblasts.

Preeclampsia (PE) is a placenta-induced inflammatory disease associated with maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. The mechanisms underlying PE remain enigmatic and delivery of the placenta is the only known remedy. PE is associated with coagulation and platelet activation and increased extracellular vesicle (EV) formation. However, thrombotic occlusion of the placental vascular bed is rarely observed and the mechanistic relevance of EV and platelet activation remains unknown. Here we show that EVs induce a thromboinflammatory response specifically in the placenta. Following EV injection, activated platelets accumulate particularly within the placental vascular bed. EVs cause adenosine triphosphate (ATP) release from platelets and inflammasome activation within trophoblast cells through purinergic signaling. Inflammasome activation in trophoblast cells triggers a PE-like phenotype, characterized by pregnancy failure, elevated blood pressure, increased plasma soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1, and renal dysfunction. Intriguingly, genetic inhibition of inflammasome activation specifically in the placenta, pharmacological inhibition of inflammasome or purinergic signaling, or genetic inhibition of maternal platelet activation abolishes the PE-like phenotype. Inflammasome activation in trophoblast cells of women with preeclampsia corroborates the translational relevance of these findings. These results strongly suggest that EVs cause placental sterile inflammation and PE through activation of maternal platelets and purinergic inflammasome activation in trophoblast cells, uncovering a novel thromboinflammatory mechanism at the maternal-embryonic interface.

Filtration based assessment of CTCs and CellSearch® based assessment are both powerful predictors of prognosis for metastatic breast cancer patients.

BACKGROUND: The assessment of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) has been shown to enable monitoring of treatment response and early detection of metastatic breast cancer (MBC) recurrence. The aim of this study was to compare a well-established CTC detection method based on immunomagnetic isolation with a new, filtration-based platform. METHODS: In this prospective study, two 7.5 ml blood draws were obtained from 60 MBC patients and CTC enumeration was assessed using both the CellSearch® and the newly developed filtration-based platform. We analyzed the correlation of CTC-positivity between both methods and their ability to predict prognosis. Overall survival (OS) was calculated and Kaplan-Meier curves were estimated with thresholds of ≥1 and ≥5 detected CTCs. RESULTS: The CTC positivity rate of the CellSearch® system was 56.7% and of the filtration-based platform 66.7%. There was a high correlation of CTC enumeration obtained with both methods. The OS for patients without detected CTCs, regardless of the method used, was significantly higher compared to patients with one or more CTCs (p < 0.001). The median OS of patients with no CTCs vs. ≥ 1 CTC assessed by CellSearch® was 1.83 years (95% CI: 1.63-2.02) vs. 0.74 years (95% CI: 0.51-1.52). If CTCs were detected by the filtration-based method the median OS times were 1.88 years (95% CI: 1.74-2.03) vs. 0.59 years (95% CI: 0.38-0.80). CONCLUSIONS: The newly established EpCAM independently filtration-based system is a suitable method to determine CTC counts for MBC patients. Our study confirms CTCs as being strong predictors of prognosis in our population of MBC patients.

Trophoblast expression dynamics of the tumor suppressor gene gastrokine 2.

Gastrokines (GKNs) were originally described as stomach-specific tumor suppressor genes. Recently, we identified GKN1 in extravillous trophoblasts (EVT) of human placenta. GKN1 treatment reduced the migration of the trophoblast cell line JEG-3. GKN2 is known to inhibit the proliferation, migration and invasion of gastric cancer cells and may interact with GKN1. Recently, GKN2 was detected in the placental yolk sac of mice. We therefore aimed to further characterize placental GKN2 expression. By immunohistochemistry, healthy first-trimester placenta showed ubiquitous staining for GKN2 at its early gestational stage. At later gestational stages, a more differentiated expression pattern in EVT and villous cytotrophoblasts became evident. In healthy third-trimester placenta, only EVT retained strong GKN2 immunoreactivity. In contrast, HELLP placentas showed a tendency of increased levels of GKN2 expression with a more prominent GKN2 staining in their syncytiotrophoblast. Choriocarcinoma cell lines did not express GKN2. Besides its trophoblastic expression, we found human GKN2 in fibrotic villi, in amniotic membrane and umbilical cord. GKN2 co-localized with smooth muscle actin in villous myofibroblasts and with HLA-G and GKN1 in EVT. In the rodent placenta, GKN2 was specifically located in the spongiotrophoblast layer. Thus, the gestational age-dependent and compartment-specific expression pattern of GKN2 points to a role for placental development. The syncytial expression of GKN2 in HELLP placentas might represent a reduced state of functional differentiation of the syncytiotrophoblast. Moreover, the specific GKN2 expression in the rodent spongiotrophoblast layer (equivalent to human EVT) might suggest an important role in EVT physiology.

A content-based review of mobile health applications for breast cancer prevention and education: Characteristics, quality and functionality analysis.

Objective: Mobile Health apps could be a feasible and effective tool to raise awareness for breast cancer prevention and to support women to change their behaviour to a healthier lifestyle. The aim of this study was to analyse the characteristics and quality of apps designed for breast cancer prevention and education. Methods: We conducted a systematic search for apps covering breast cancer prevention topics in the Google Play and Apple App Store accessible from Germany using search terms either in German or in English. Only apps with a last update after June 2020 were included. The apps identified were downloaded and evaluated by two independent researchers. App quality was analysed using the Mobile Application Rating Scale (MARS). Associations of app characteristics and MARS rating were analysed. Results: We identified 19 apps available in the Google Play Store and seven apps available in the Apple App Store that met all inclusion criteria. The mean MARS score was 3.07 and 3.50, respectively. Functionality was the highest-scoring domain. Operating system, developer (healthcare), download rates and time since the last update were significantly associated with overall MARS score. In addition, the presence of the following app functions significantly influenced MARS rating: breast self-examination tutorial, reminder for self-examination, documentation feature and education about breast cancer risk factors. Conclusions: Although most of the apps offer important features for breast cancer prevention, none of the analysed apps combined all functions. The absence of healthcare professionals' expertise in developing apps negatively affects the overall quality.

Unbiased high-dimensional flow cytometry identified NK and DC immune cell signature in Luminal A-type and triple negative breast cancer.

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women worldwide and a highly heterogeneous disease. Four different subtypes are described that differ in the expression of hormone receptors as well as the growth factor receptor HER2. Treatment modalities and survival rate depend on the subtype of breast cancer. However, it is still not clear which patients benefit from immunotherapeutic approaches such as checkpoint blockade. Thus, we aimed to decipher the immune cell signature of the different breast cancer subtypes based on high-dimensional flow cytometry followed by unbiased approaches. Here, we show that the frequency of NK cells is reduced in Luminal A and B as well as triple negative breast cancer and that the phenotype of residual NK cells is changed toward regulatory CD11b-CD16- NK cells. Further, we found higher frequencies of PD-1+ CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in triple negative breast cancer. Moreover, while Luminal A-type breast cancer was enriched for CD14+ cDC2 (named type 3 DC (DC3)), CD14- cDC2 (named DC2) were more frequent in triple negative breast cancer. In contrast, HER2-enriched breast cancer did not show major alterations in the composition of the immune cell compartment in the tumor microenvironment. These findings suggest that patients with Luminal A- and B-type as well as triple negative breast cancer might benefit from immunotherapeutic approaches targeting NK cells.

RANK and RANKL Expression in Tumors of Patients with Early Breast Cancer.

Introduction: The receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (RANK) pathway was associated with the pathogenesis of breast cancer. Several studies attempted to link the RANK/RANKL pathway to prognosis; however, with inconsistent outcomes. We aimed to further contribute to the knowledge about RANK/RANKL as prognostic factors in breast cancer. Within this study, protein expression of RANK and its ligand, RANKL, in the tumor tissue was analyzed in association with disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) in a study cohort of patients with early breast cancer. Patients and Methods: 607 samples of female primary and early breast cancer patients from the Bavarian Breast Cancer Cases and Controls Study were analyzed to correlate the RANK and RANKL expression with DFS and OS. Therefore, expression was quantified using immunohistochemical staining of a tissue microarray. H-scores were determined with the cut-off value of 8.5 for RANK and 0 for RANKL expression, respectively. Results: RANK and RANKL immunohistochemistry were assessed by H-score. Both biomarkers did not correlate (ρ = -0.04). According to molecular subtypes, triple-negative tumors and HER2-positive tumors showed a higher number of RANK-positive tumors (H-score ≥ 8.5), however, no subtype-specific expression of RANKL could be detected. Higher RANKL expression tended to correlate with a better prognosis. However, RANK and RANKL expression could not be identified as statistically significant prognostic factors within the study cohort. Conclusions: Tumor-specific RANK and RANKL expressions are not applicable as prognostic factors for DFS and OS, but might be associated with subtype-specific breast cancer progression.

Susceptibility gene mutations in germline and tumors of patients with HER2-negative advanced breast cancer.

Germline mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 (gBRCA1/2) are required for a PARP inhibitor therapy in patients with HER2-negative (HER2-) advanced breast cancer (aBC). However, little is known about the prognostic impact of gBRCA1/2 mutations in aBC patients treated with chemotherapy. This study aimed to investigate the frequencies and prognosis of germline and somatic BRCA1/2 mutations in HER2- aBC patients receiving the first chemotherapy in the advanced setting. Patients receiving their first chemotherapy for HER2- aBC were retrospectively selected from the prospective PRAEGNANT registry (NCT02338167). Genotyping of 26 cancer predisposition genes was performed with germline DNA of 471 patients and somatic tumor DNA of 94 patients. Mutation frequencies, progression-free and overall survival (PFS, OS) according to germline mutation status were assessed. gBRCA1/2 mutations were present in 23 patients (4.9%), and 33 patients (7.0%) had mutations in other cancer risk genes. Patients with a gBRCA1/2 mutation had a better OS compared to non-mutation carriers (HR: 0.38; 95%CI: 0.17-0.86). PFS comparison was not statistically significant. Mutations in other risk genes did not affect prognosis. Two somatic BRCA2 mutations were found in 94 patients without gBRCA1/2 mutations. Most frequently somatic mutated genes were TP53 (44.7%), CDH1 (10.6%) and PTEN (6.4%). In conclusion, aBC patients with gBRCA1/2 mutations had a more favorable prognosis under chemotherapy compared to non-mutation carriers. The mutation frequency of ~5% with gBRCA1/2 mutations together with improved outcome indicates that germline genotyping of all metastatic patients for whom a PARP inhibitor therapy is indicated should be considered.

Long-term Follow-up and Safety of Patients after an Upfront Therapy with Letrozole for Early Breast Cancer in Routine Clinical Care - The PreFace Study.

Introduction: Adjuvant treatment of patients with early-stage breast cancer (BC) should include an aromatase inhibitor (AI). Especially patients with a high recurrence risk might benefit from an upfront therapy with an AI for a minimum of five years. Nevertheless, not much is known about the patient selection for this population in clinical practice. Therefore, this study analyzed the prognosis and patient characteristics of postmenopausal patients selected for a five-year upfront letrozole therapy. Patients and Methods: From 2009 to 2011, 3529 patients were enrolled into the adjuvant phase IV PreFace clinical trial (NCT01908556). Postmenopausal hormone receptor-positive BC patients, for whom an upfront five-year therapy with letrozole (2.5 mg/day) was indicated, were eligible. Disease-free survival (DFS), overall survival (OS) and safety in relation to patient and tumor characteristics were assessed. Results: 3297 patients started letrozole therapy. The majority of patients (n = 1639, 57%) completed the five-year treatment. 34.5% of patients continued with endocrine therapy after the mandated five-year endocrine treatment. Five-year DFS rates were 89% (95% CI: 88-90%) and five-year OS rates were 95% (95% CI: 94-96%). In subgroup analyses, DFS rates were 83%, 84% and 78% for patients with node-positive disease, G3 tumor grading, and pT3 tumors respectively. The main adverse events (any grade) were pain and hot flushes (66.8% and 18.3% of patients). Conclusions: The risk profile of postmenopausal BC patients selected for a five-year upfront letrozole therapy showed a moderate recurrence and death risk. However, in subgroups with unfavorable risk factors, prognosis warrants an improvement, which might be achieved with novel targeted therapies.