Influence of the calcium voltage-gated channel auxiliary subunit (CACNA2D1) absence on intraocular pressure in mice.

The etiology of elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), a major risk factor for glaucoma (optic nerve atrophy), is poorly understood despite continued efforts. Although the gene variant of CACNA2D1 (encoding α2δ1), a calcium voltage-gated channel auxiliary subunit, has been reported to be associated with primary open-angle glaucoma, and the pharmacological mitigation of α2δ1 activity by pregabalin lowers IOP, the cellular basis for α2δ1 role in the modulation of IOP remains unclear. Our recent findings reveled readily detectable levels of α2δ1 and its ligand thrombospondin in the cytoskeletome fraction of human trabecular meshwork (TM) cells. To understand the direct role of α2δ1 in the modulation of IOP, we evaluated α2δ1 null mice for changes in IOP and found a moderate (∼10%) but significant decrease in IOP compared to littermate wild type control mice. Additionally, to gain cellular insights into α2δ1 antagonist (pregabalin) induced IOP changes, we assessed pregabalin's effects on human TM cell actin cytoskeletal organization and cell adhesive interactions in comparison with a Rho kinase inhibitor (Y27632), a known ocular hypotensive agent. Unlike Y27632, pregabalin did not have overt effects on cell morphology, actin cytoskeletal organization, or cell adhesion in human TM cells. These results reveal a modest but significant decrease in IOP in α2δ1 deficient mice, and this response appears to be not associated with the contractile and cell adhesive characteristics of TM cells based on the findings of pregabalin effects on isolated TM cells. Therefore, the mechanism by which pregabalin lowers IOP remains elusive.

Current Advancements in Mouse Models of Retinal Disease.

The field of retinal degenerative (RDs) disease study has been in a state of exponential growth from discovering the underlying genetic components of such diseases as age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and retinitis pigmentosa (RP) to the first gene therapy developed and approved for human Leber congenital amaurosis. However, a source for high-fidelity animal models of these complex, multifactorial, and/or polygenic diseases is a need that has yet to be fulfilled. While models for AMD and RP do exist, they often require aging the animals for a year or more, feeding special diets, or introduction of external modulators such as exposure to cigarette smoke. Currently, work is being done to uncover high-fidelity naturally occurring models of these retinal diseases with the hope and intent of providing the vision community the tools it needs to better understand, treat, and, one day, cure the patients suffering from these devastating afflictions.

A Novel Mouse Model for Late-Onset Retinal Degeneration (L-ORD) Develops RPE Abnormalities Due to the Loss of C1qtnf5/Ctrp5.

Late-onset retinal degeneration (L-ORD) is an autosomal dominant macular dystrophy resulting from mutations in the gene CTRP5/C1QTNF5. A mouse model (Ctrp5+/-) for the most common S163R developed many features of human clinical disease. We generated a novel homozygous Ctrp5 gene knock-out (Ctrp5-/-) mouse model to further study the mechanism of L-ORD. The retinal morphology of these mice was evaluated by retinal imaging, light microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) at 6, 11, and 18.5 mo. Expression of Ctrp5 was analyzed using immunostaining and qRT-PCR. The Ctrp5-/- mice showed lack of both Ctrp5 transcript and protein. Presence of a significantly larger number of autofluorescent spots was observed in Ctrp5-/- mice compared to the WT (P < 0.0001) at 19 mo. Increased RPE stress with vacuolization and thinning was observed as early as 6 mo in Ctrp5-/- mice. Further, ultrastructural analyses revealed a progressive accumulation of basal laminar sub-RPE deposits in Ctrp5-/- mice from 11 mo. The Ctrp5-/- mice shared retinal and RPE pathology that matches with that previously described for Ctrp5+/- mice suggesting that pathology in these mice results from the loss of functional CTRP5 and that the presence of CTRP5 is critical for normal RPE and retinal function.

Gellan Gum Based Sol-to-Gel Transforming System of Natamycin Transfersomes Improves Topical Ocular Delivery.

Short precorneal residence time and poor transocular membrane permeability are the major challenges associated with topical ocular drug delivery. In the present research, the efficiency of the electrolyte-triggered sol-to-gel-forming system of natamycin (NT) transfersomes was investigated for enhanced and prolonged ophthalmic delivery. Transfersomes were optimized by varying the molar ratios of phospholipid, sorbitan monostearate (Span) and tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS). NT transfersome formulations (FNs) prepared with a 1:1 molar ratio of phospholipid-to-Span and low levels of TPGS showed optimal morphometric properties, and were thus selected to fabricate the in situ gelling system. Gellan gum-based (0.3% w/v) FN-loaded formulations (FNGs) immediately formed an in situ gel in the simulated tear fluid, with considerable viscoelastic characteristics. In vitro cytotoxicity in corneal epithelial cells and corneal histology studies demonstrated the ocular safety and cytocompatibility of these optimized formulations. Transcorneal permeability of NT from these formulations was significantly higher than in the control suspension. Moreover, the ocular disposition studies of NT, from the FNs and FNGs, in New Zealand male albino rabbits demonstrated the superiority of the electrolyte-sensitive FNGs in terms of NT delivery to the ocular tissues.

Potential effect on molecular pathways in different targeted genes in the VEGF family in retina - From the genomic point of view.

This study's goal is to determine similarities and differences in the molecular pathways or potential functions of the various targeted regions or genes of the Vegf family-VegfA, VegfB, VegfC, and Pgf-using the BXD genetic reference panel. Data from whole genome expression profiles of retinas from the well-characterized mouse recombinant inbred (RI) strain population derived from C57BL/6J X DBA/2J (BXD) were analyzed. Multiple analytical tools and statistical strategies were used to investigate the expression level. The expression Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) of these probes were mapped and compared. Our data showed that VegfA2 has the highest expression levels among all probes of Vegf genes. The expression levels of Vegf family genes are not significantly correlated. In the overall comparison, expression levels of VegfA1 and VegfA2 are positively correlated (R = 0.540). The expression levels of VegfB and VegfC are weakly correlated (R = 0.360). VegfC is also weakly correlated with the expression levels of Pgf (R = 0.324). The interaction of VegfB- and VegfA2-associated 50a2 genes was very weak (R50 ab = 0.3129). The interaction of top VegfB-associated 50b genes with VegfA2 has a reciprocal negative impact (R50ba = -0.42758). The VegfC-associated top 50c genes are strongly correlated with VegfB (R50 cb = 0.8159), while they are negatively correlated with VegfA2 (R50ca = -0.1450). Expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) analysis suggested that the regulatory mechanisms for the expression levels of these genes in the Vegf family are different from each other. The expression level of VegfA associates with a group of genes that are not associated with other genes in the Vegf family.

P-glycoprotein Restricts Ocular Penetration of Loperamide across the Blood-Ocular Barriers: a Comparative Study in Mdr1a Knock-out and Wild Type Sprague Dawley Rats.

The current research was undertaken to determine the existence and magnitude of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) expression on the blood-ocular barriers by studying the ocular penetration of loperamide, a specific P-gp substrate, in P-gp (Mdr1a) knock-out (KO) and wild type (WT) Sprague Dawley rats. A clear, stable, sterile solution of loperamide (1 mg/mL), for intravenous administration, was formulated and evaluated. Ocular distribution was studied in P-gp KO and WT rats following intravenous administration of loperamide (at two doses). The drug levels in plasma, aqueous humor (AH), and vitreous humor (VH) samples were determined with the aid of UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS, and the AH/plasma (D AH ) and VH/plasma (D VH ) distribution ratios were estimated. Electroretinography (ERG), ultrastructural analyses, and histology studies were carried out, in both KO and WT rats, to detect any drug-induced functional and/or structural alterations in the retina. Dose-related loperamide levels were observed in the plasma of both WT and KO rats. The loperamide concentrations in the AH and VH of KO rats were significantly higher compared to that observed in the WT rats, at the lower dose. However, a marked increase in the D AH and D VH was noted in the KO rats. ERG, ultrastructure, and histology studies did not indicate any drug-induced toxic effects in the retina under the test conditions. The results from these studies demonstrate that P-gp blocks the penetration of loperamide into the ocular tissues from the systemic circulation and that the effect is more pronounced at lower plasma loperamide concentrations.

Impact of obesity with impaired glucose tolerance on retinal degeneration in a rat model of metabolic syndrome.

PURPOSE: Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is associated with several degenerative diseases, including retinal degeneration. Previously, we reported on progressive retinal degeneration in a spontaneous obese rat (WNIN/Ob) model. In this study, we investigated the additional effect of impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), an essential component of MetS, on retinal degeneration using the WNIN/GR-Ob rat model. METHODS: The retinal morphology and ultrastructure of WNIN/GR-Ob and age-matched littermate lean rats were studied by microscopy and immunohistochemistry. The retinal transcriptome of WNIN/GR-Ob was compared with the respective lean controls and with the WNIN/Ob model using microarray analysis. Expression of selected retinal marker genes was studied via real-time PCR. RESULTS: Progressive loss of photoreceptor cells was observed in WNIN/GR-Ob rats with an onset as early as 3 months. Similarly, thinning of the inner nuclear layer was observed from 6 months in these rats. Immunohistochemical analysis showed decreased levels of rhodopsin and postsynaptic density protein-95 (PSD-95) proteins and increased levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and calretinin in WNIN/GR-Ob rats compared with the age-matched lean controls, further supporting cellular stress/damage and retinal degeneration. The retinal transcriptome analysis indicated altered expression profiles in both the WNIN/GR-Ob and WNIN/Ob rat models compared to their respective lean controls; these pathways are associated with activation of pathways like cellular oxidative stress response, inflammation, apoptosis, and phototransduction, although the changes were more prominent in WNIN/GR-Ob than in WNIN/Ob animals. CONCLUSIONS: WNIN/GR-Ob rats with added glucose intolerance developed retinal degeneration similar to the parent line WNIN/Ob. The severity of retinal degeneration was greater in WNIN/GR-Ob rats compared to WNIN/Ob, suggesting a possible role for IGT in this model. Hence, the WNIN/GR-Ob model could be a valuable tool for investigating the impact of MetS on retinal degeneration pathology.

Nimodipine Ophthalmic Formulations for Management of Glaucoma.

PURPOSE: Preparation and evaluation of topical ophthalmic formulations containing nimodipine-CD complexes prepared using HP-ß-CD, SBE-ß-CD and M-ß-CD for the management of glaucoma. METHODS: Nimodipine-CD complexes were prepared using a freeze-drying method. Two different molar ratios (NMD:CD) were used for each cyclodextrin. The inclusion complexes were characterized using DSC, FTIR, yield (%), drug content and in vitro release characteristics. NMD-CD complexes incorporated into chitosan eye drops and a temperature-triggered in situ gelling system were evaluated for their pH, viscosity and in vitro release characteristics. We determined the intraocular pressure (IOP) lowering effect of NMD-hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) eye drops through a single dose response design using C57BL/6J mice. The minimum effective concentration (MEC) of nimodipine was further applied to mice that vary in the parental allele of Cacna1s, the drug target of nimodipine. Cytotoxicity was also evaluated. RESULTS: Our ophthalmic formulations possessed pH and viscosity values that are compatible with the eye. In vitro release of nimodipine was significantly increased from chitosan eye drops containing NMD-CD complexes compared to uncomplexed drug. Administration of nimodipine can lower IOP significantly after a single drop of drug HPMC suspension. The IOP-lowering response of the MEC (0.6%) was significantly influenced by the parental allele of Cacna1s. CONCLUSIONS: Nimodipine can be used as a promising topical drug for management of glaucoma through ocular delivery.

Iris transillumination defect and its gene modulators do not correlate with intraocular pressure in the BXD family of mice.

PURPOSE: Intraocular pressure (IOP) is currently the only treatable phenotype associated with primary open angle glaucoma (POAG). Our group has developed the BXD murine panel for identifying genetic modulators of the various endophenotypes of glaucoma, including pigment dispersion, IOP, and retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death. The BXD family consists of the inbred progeny of crosses between the C57BL/6J (B6) strain and the glaucoma-prone DBA/2J (D2) strain that has mutations in Tyrp1 and Gpnmb. The role of these genes in the iris transillumination defect (TID) has been well documented; however, their possible roles in modulating IOP during glaucoma onset and progression are yet not well understood. METHODS: We used the IOP data sets and the Eye M430v2 (Sep08) RMA Database available on GeneNetwork to determine whether mutations in Tyrp1 and Gpnmb or TIDs have a direct role in the elevation of IOP in the BXD family. We also determined whether TIDs and IOP are coregulated. RESULTS: As expected, Tyrp1 and Gpnmb expression levels showed a high degree of correlation with TIDs. However, there was no correlation between the expression of these genes and IOP. Moreover, unlike TIDs, IOP did not map to either the Tyrp1 or Gpnmb locus. Although the Tyrp1 and Gpnmb mutations in BXD strains are a prerequisite for the development of TID, they are not required for or associated with elevated IOP. CONCLUSIONS: Genetic modulators of IOP thus may be independently identified using the full array of BXD mice without concern for the presence of TIDs or mutations in Typr1 and/or Gpnmb.

Genetic and immunohistochemical analysis of HSPA5 in mouse and human retinas.

PURPOSE: Photoreceptor degenerative diseases are among the leading causes of vision loss. Although the causative genetic mutations are often known, mechanisms leading to photoreceptor degeneration remain poorly defined. We have previously demonstrated that the photoreceptor membrane-associated protein XAP-1 antigen is a product of the HSPA5 gene. In this study, we used systems genetic methods, statistical modeling, and immunostaining to identify and analyze candidate genes that modulate Hspa5 expression in the retina. METHODS: Quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping was used to map the genomic region that regulates Hspa5 in the cross between C57BL/6J X DBA/2J mice (BXD) genetic reference panel. The stepwise refinement of candidate genes was based on expression QTL mapping, gene expression correlation analyses (direct and partial), and analysis of regional sequence variants. The subcellular localization of candidate proteins and HSPA5 in mouse and human retinas was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Differences in the localization of extracellular HSPA5 were assessed between healthy human donor and atrophic age-related macular degeneration (AMD) donor eyes. RESULTS: In the eyes of healthy mice, extracellular HSPA5 was confined to the area around the cone photoreceptor outer segments. Mapping variation in Hspa5 mRNA expression levels in the retina revealed a statistically significant trans-acting expression QTL (eQTL) on Chromosome 2 (Chr 2) and a suggestive locus on Chr 15. Sulf2 on Chr 2 was the strongest candidate gene based on partial correlation analysis, Pearson correlation with Hspa5, expression levels in the retina, a missense variant in exon 14, and its reported function in the extracellular matrix and interphotoreceptor matrix. SULF2 is localized to the rod and cone photoreceptors in both human and mouse retinas. In human retinas with no pathology, extracellular HSPA5 was localized around many cones within the macular area. In contrast, fewer HSPA5-immunopositive cones were observed in the retinas from AMD donors. CONCLUSIONS: We identified Sulf2 as a candidate gene modulating the Hspa5 expression in the retina. The preferential loss of HSPA5 in the interphotoreceptor matrix around cone photoreceptors in atrophic AMD retinas opens up new avenues for exploring the changes in interphotoreceptor matrix (IPM) that are associated with macular disease.

Presence of rd8 mutation does not alter the ocular phenotype of late-onset retinal degeneration mouse model.

PURPOSE: A spontaneous frameshift mutation, c.3481delC, in the Crb1 gene is the underlying cause of dysplasia and retinal degeneration in rd8 mice. The rd8 mutation is found in C57BL/6N but not in C57BL/6J mouse sub-strains. The development of ocular pathology in single knockout Ccl2-/-, Cx3cr1-/- and in double knockout Ccl2-/-, Cx3cr1-/- mice raised on a C57BL/6 background has been reported to depend on the presence of a rd8 mutation. In this study, we investigated the influence of the rd8 mutation on the retinal pathology that we previously described in the late-onset retinal degeneration (L-ORD) mouse model with a heterozygous S163R mutation in the C1q-tumor necrosis factor-related protein-5Ctrp5+/- gene that was generated on a C57BL/6J background. METHODS: Mouse lines carrying the Ctrp5 S163R and rd8 mutations (Ctrp5+/-;rd8/rd8), corresponding controls without the rd8 mutation (Ctrp5+/-;wt/wt), and wild-type mice with and without the rd8 mutation (Wtrd8/rd8 and Wtwt/wt, respectively) were generated by systematic breeding of mice in our L-ORD mouse colony. Genotyping the mice for the rd8 (del C at nt3481 in Crb1) and Ctrp5 S163R mutations was performed with allelic PCR or sequencing. Retinal morphology was studied with fundus imaging, histology, light microscopy, electron microscopy, and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Genotype analysis of the mice in L-ORD mouse colony detected the rd8 mutation in the homozygous and heterozygous state. Fundus imaging of wild-type mice without the rd8 mutation (Wtwt/wt) revealed no autofluorescence (AF) spots up to 6-8 months and few AF spots at 21 months. However, the accumulation of AF lesions accelerated with age in the Ctrp5+/- mice that lack the rd8 mutation (Ctrp5+/-;wt/wt). The number of AF lesions was significantly increased (p<0.001), and they were small and uniformly distributed throughout the retina in the 21-month-old Ctrp5+/-;wt/wt mice when compared to the age-matched controls. Wild-type and Ctrp5+/- mice with the rd8 mutation (Wtrd8/rd8 and Ctrp5+/-;rd8/rd8, respectively) revealed an integrated retinal architecture with well-defined outer segments/inner segments (OS/IS), outer nuclear layer (ONL), outer plexiform layer (OPL), and inner nuclear layer (INL). The presence of pseudorosette structures reported in the rd8 mice between the ONL and the INL in the ventral quadrant of the retina was not observed in all genotypes studied. Further, the external limiting membrane was continuous in the Ctrp5+/-;rd8/rd8 and Wtrd8/rd8 mice. Evaluation of the retinal phenotype revealed that the Ctrp5+/-;wt/wt mice developed characteristic L-ORD pathology including age-dependent accumulation of AF spots, development of sub-retinal, sub-RPE, and basal laminar deposits, and Bruch's membrane abnormalities at older age, while these changes were not observed in the age-matched littermate WTwt/wt mice. CONCLUSIONS: The Wtrd8/rd8 and Ctrp5+/-;rd8/rd8 mice raised on C57BL/6J did not develop early onset retinal changes that are characteristic of the rd8 phenotype, supporting the hypothesis that manifestation of rd8-associated pathology depends on the genetic background. The retinal pathology observed in mice with the Ctrp5+/-;wt/wt genotype is consistent with the L-ORD phenotype observed in patients and with the phenotype we described previously. The lack of rd8-associated retinal pathology in the Ctrp5+/-;wt/wt mouse model raised on the C57BL/6J background and the development of the L-ORD phenotype in these mice in the presence and absence of the rd8 mutation suggests that the pathology observed in the Ctrp5+/-;wt/wt mice is primarily associated with the S163R mutation in the Ctrp5 gene.

Varied manifestations of persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous with graded somatic mosaic deletion of a single gene.

PURPOSE: Persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous (PHPV) represents a developmental eye disease known to have diverse manifestations ranging from a trivial remnant of hyaloid vessels to a dense fibrovascular mass causing lens opacity and retinal detachment. PHPV can be modeled in mice lacking individual genes, but certain features of such models differ from the clinical realm. For example, mice lacking the Arf gene have uniformly severe disease with consistent autosomal recessive disease penetrance. We tested whether the graded somatic loss of Arf in a subset of cells in chimeric mice mimics the range of disease in a non-heritable manner. METHODS: Wild type ↔ Arf(-/-) mouse chimeras were generated by morulae fusion, and when the mice were 10 weeks old, fundoscopic, slit-lamp, and histological evaluations were performed. The relative fraction of cells of the Arf(-/-) lineage was assessed with visual, molecular genetic, and histological analysis. Objective quantification of various aspects of the phenotype was correlated with the genotype. RESULTS: Sixteen chimeras were generated and shown to have low, medium, and high contributions of Arf(-/-) cells to tail DNA, the cornea, and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), with excellent correlation between chimerism in the tail DNA and the RPE. Phenotypic differences (coat color and severity of eye disease) were evident, objectively quantified, and found to correlate with the contribution of Arf(-/-) cells to the RPE and tail-derived DNA, but not the cornea. CONCLUSIONS: Generating animals composed of different numbers of Arf(-/-) cells mimicked the range of disease severity observed in patients with PHPV. This establishes the potential for full manifestations of PHPV to be caused by somatic mutations of a single gene during development.

Genistein transfersome-embedded topical delivery system for skin melanoma treatment: in vitro and ex vivo evaluations.

Skin melanoma is considered the most dangerous form of skin cancer due to its association with high risk of metastasis, high mortality rate and high resistance to different treatment options. Genistein is a natural isoflavonoid with known chemotherapeutic activity. Unfortunately, it has low bioavailability due to its poor aqueous solubility and excessive metabolism. In the current study, genistein was incorporated into transferosomal hydrogel to improve its bioavailability. The prepared transferosomal formulations were characterized regarding: particle size; polydispersity index; zeta potential; encapsulation efficiency; TEM; FTIR; DSC; XRD; in vitro drug release; viscosity; pH; ex vivo anti-tumor activity on 3D skin melanoma spheroids and 1-year stability study at different storage temperatures. The optimized formulation has high encapsulation efficiency with an excellent particle size that will facilitate its penetration through the skin. The transfersomes have a spherical shape with sustained drug release profile. The anti-tumor activity evaluation of genistein transfersome revealed that genistein is a potent chemotherapeutic agent with enhanced penetration ability through the melanoma spheroids when incorporated into transfersomes. Stability study results demonstrate the high physical and chemical stability of our formulations. All these outcomes provide evidence that our genistein transferosomal hydrogel is a promising treatment option for skin melanoma.

A CTRP5 gene S163R mutation knock-in mouse model for late-onset retinal degeneration.

Late-onset retinal macular degeneration (L-ORD) is an autosomal dominant inherited disorder caused by a single missense mutation (S163R) in the CTRP5/C1QTNF5 protein. Early phenotypic features of L-ORD include: dark adaptation abnormalities, nyctalopia, and drusen deposits in the peripheral macular region. Apart from posterior segment abnormalities, these patients also develop abnormally long anterior lens zonules. In the sixth decade of life the rod and cone function declines, accompanied by electroretinogram (ERG) abnormalities. Some patients also develop choroidal neovascularization and glaucoma. In order to understand the disease pathology and mechanisms involved in retinal dystrophy, we generated a knock-in (Ctrp5(+/-)) mouse model carrying the disease-associated mutation in the mouse Ctrp5/C1QTNF5 gene. These mice develop slower rod-b wave recovery consistent with early dark adaptation abnormalities, accumulation of hyperautofluorescence spots, retinal pigment epithelium abnormalities, drusen, Bruch's membrane abnormalities, loss of photoreceptors, and retinal vascular leakage. The Ctrp5(+/-) mice, which have most of the pathological features of age-related macular degeneration, are unique and may serve as a valuable model both to understand the molecular pathology of late-onset retinal degeneration and to evaluate therapies.

Poly(ortho ester) nanoparticle-based targeted intraocular therapy for controlled release of hydrophilic molecules.

Development of an efficient intraocular drug delivery nanosystem remains the most difficult challenge to attain a prolonged therapeutic effect at the site of drug action. The purpose of this work was to develop a biodegradable, long-term sustained release, and biocompatible nanoparticulate system to treat various intraocular diseases. To attain the objectives, poly(ortho ester) (POE), a hydrophobic, surface erodible, and nontoxic polymer, was selected for fabrication of nanoparticles for the first time using a double emulsion solvent evaporation method. The influence of POE molecular weight on particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, drug content, in vitro release, degradation, in vitro cytotoxicity, and cell uptake studies was investigated. Drug-loaded nanoparticles had a spherical shape with an average particle diameter from 241 to 298 nm and zeta potential values from -8 to -11 mV. Encapsulation efficiency ranged between 21 and 63%, depending on the type of the water-soluble molecule used. Approximately 20-30% of the loaded drug was released over a period of 14 weeks. The drug release and degradation profiles of nanoparticles followed perfect zero-order kinetics confirming the POE-surface erosion mechanism. In vitro cytotoxicity and cell uptake studies revealed the cyto-compatible nature and nonendocytic behavior of POE nanoparticles. Collectively, POE nanoparticles are a very promising vehicle for sustained delivery of therapeutics to the back of the eye.

Novel topical ophthalmic formulations for management of glaucoma.

PURPOSE: Preparation of topical ophthalmic formulations containing brimonidine-loaded nanoparticles prepared from various biodegradable polymers-PCL, PLA and PLGA-for sustained release of brimonidine as a once daily regimen for management of glaucoma. METHODS: Nanoparticles were prepared using spontaneous emulsification solvent diffusion method then characterized regarding their particle size, zeta potential, morphology and drug contents. Brimonidine-loaded nanoparticles were incorporated into eye drops, temperature-triggered in situ gelling system and preformed gel and characterized regarding their pH, viscosity, uniformity of drug contents, in vitro release study, in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo intraocular pressure (IOP) lowering effects. RESULTS: The results of optimized brimonidine-loaded PCL-, PLGA- and PLA-NPs respectively, are: particle sizes of 117.33 ± 4.58 nm, 125.67 ± 5.15 nm and 131.67 ± 3.79 nm; zeta potentials of -18.5 ± 2.87 mV, -21.82 ± 2.7 mV and -28.11 ± 2.21 mV; and encapsulation efficiencies of 77.97 ± 1.38%, 68.65 ± 3.35% and 73.52 ± 2.92%. TEM analyses revealed that all NPs have spherical shapes with dense core and distinct coat. In vitro release data showed a sustained release without any burst effect with Higuchi non-Fickian diffusion mechanism. Cytotoxicity studies revealed that all formulations are non-toxic. Also all formulations possessed a sustained IOP lowering effect compared to Alphagan® P eye drops. CONCLUSIONS: Our formulations showed prolonged management of glaucoma that should meet with better patient compliance as a once-daily formulation.

Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis Underlying Inherited Retinal Dystrophies.

Inherited retinal dystrophies (IRDs) are congenital retinal degenerative diseases that have various inheritance patterns, including dominant, recessive, X-linked, and mitochondrial. These diseases are most often the result of defects in rod and/or cone photoreceptor and retinal pigment epithelium function, development, or both. The genes associated with these diseases, when mutated, produce altered protein products that have downstream effects in pathways critical to vision, including phototransduction, the visual cycle, photoreceptor development, cellular respiration, and retinal homeostasis. The aim of this manuscript is to provide a comprehensive review of the underlying molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis of IRDs by delving into many of the genes associated with IRD development, their protein products, and the pathways interrupted by genetic mutation.

Computational methods in glaucoma research: Current status and future outlook.

Advancements in computational techniques have transformed glaucoma research, providing a deeper understanding of genetics, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets. Systems genetics integrates genomic and clinical data, aiding in identifying drug targets, comprehending disease mechanisms, and personalizing treatment strategies for glaucoma. Molecular dynamics simulations offer valuable molecular-level insights into glaucoma-related biomolecule behavior and drug interactions, guiding experimental studies and drug discovery efforts. Artificial intelligence (AI) technologies hold promise in revolutionizing glaucoma research, enhancing disease diagnosis, target identification, and drug candidate selection. The generalized protocols for systems genetics, MD simulations, and AI model development are included as a guide for glaucoma researchers. These computational methods, however, are not separate and work harmoniously together to discover novel ways to combat glaucoma. Ongoing research and progresses in genomics technologies, MD simulations, and AI methodologies project computational methods to become an integral part of glaucoma research in the future.

Exploring Early-Stage Retinal Neurodegeneration in Murine Pigmentary Glaucoma: Insights From Gene Networks and miRNA Regulation Analyses.

Purpose: Glaucoma is a group of heterogeneous optic neuropathies characterized by the progressive degeneration of retinal ganglion cells. However, the underlying mechanisms have not been understood completely. We aimed to elucidate the genetic network associated with the development of pigmentary glaucoma with DBA/2J (D2) mouse model of glaucoma and corresponding genetic control D2-Gpnmb (D2G) mice carrying the wild type (WT) Gpnmb allele. Methods: Retinas isolated from 13 D2 and 12 D2G mice were subdivided into 2 age groups: pre-onset (1-6 months: samples were collected at approximately 1-2, 2-4, and 5-6 months) and post-onset (7-15 months: samples were collected at approximately 7-9, 10-12, and 13-15 months) glaucoma were compared. Differential gene expression (DEG) analysis and gene-set enrichment analyses were performed. To identify micro-RNAs (miRNAs) that target Gpnmb, miRNA expression levels were correlated with time point matched mRNA expression levels. A weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was performed using the reference BXD mouse population. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was used to validate Gpnmb and miRNA expression levels. Results: A total of 314 and 86 DEGs were identified in the pre-onset and post-onset glaucoma groups, respectively. DEGs in the pre-onset glaucoma group were associated with the crystallin gene family, whereas those in the post-onset group were related to innate immune system response. Of 1329 miRNAs predicted to target Gpnmb, 3 miRNAs (miR-125a-3p, miR-3076-5p, and miR-214-5p) were selected. A total of 47 genes demonstrated overlapping with the identified DEGs between D2 and D2G, segregated into their time-relevant stages. Gpnmb was significantly downregulated, whereas 2 out of 3 miRNAs were significantly upregulated (P < 0.05) in D2 mice at both 3-and 10-month time points. Conclusions: These findings suggest distinct gene-sets involved in pre-and post-glaucoma in the D2 mouse. We identified three miRNAs regulating Gpnmb in the development of murine pigmentary glaucoma.

Chronic Proinflammatory Signaling Accelerates the Rate of Degeneration in a Spontaneous Polygenic Model of Inherited Retinal Dystrophy.

Collectively, retinal neurodegenerative diseases are comprised of numerous subtypes of disorders which result in loss of a varying cell types in the retina. These diseases can range from glaucoma, which results in retinal ganglion cell death, to age-related macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa, which result in cell death of the retinal pigment epithelium, photoreceptors, or both. Regardless of the disease, it's been recently found that increased release of proinflammatory cytokines and proliferation of active microglia result in a remarkably proinflammatory microenvironment that assists in the pathogenesis of the disease; however, many of the details of these inflammatory events have yet to be elucidated. In an ongoing study, we have used systems genetics to identify possible models of spontaneous polygenic age-related macular degeneration by mining the BXD family of mice using single nucleotide polymorphism analyses of known genes associated with the human retinal disease. One BXD strain (BXD32) was removed from the study as the rate of degeneration observed in these animals was markedly increased with a resultant loss of most all photoreceptors by 6 months of age. Using functional and anatomical exams including optokinetic nystamography, funduscopy, fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography, along with immunohistochemical analyses, we show that the BXD32 mouse strain exhibits a severe neurodegenerative phenotype accompanied by adverse effects on the retinal vasculature. We also expose the concurrent establishment of a chronic proinflammatory microenvironment including the TNFα secretion and activation of the NF-κB and JAK/STAT pathways with an associated increase in activated macrophages and phagoptosis. We conclude that the induced neuronal death and proinflammatory pathways work synergistically in the disease pathogenesis to enhance the rate of degeneration in this spontaneous polygenic model of inherited retinal dystrophy.