Tissue-specific transcriptional programming of macrophages controls the microRNA transcriptome targeting multiple functional pathways.

Recent interest in the biology and function of peritoneal tissue resident macrophages (pMΦ) has led to a better understanding of their cellular origin, programming, and renewal. The programming of pMΦ is dependent on microenvironmental cues and tissue-specific transcription factors, including GATA6. However, the contribution of microRNAs remains poorly defined. We conducted a detailed analysis of the impact of GATA6 deficiency on microRNA expression in mouse pMΦ. Our data suggest that for many of the pMΦ, microRNA composition may be established during tissue specialization and that the effect of GATA6 knockout is largely unable to be rescued in the adult by exogenous GATA6. The data are consistent with GATA6 modulating the expression pattern of specific microRNAs, directly or indirectly, and including miR-146a, miR-223, and miR-203 established by the lineage-determining transcription factor PU.1, to achieve a differentiated pMΦ phenotype. Lastly, we showed a significant dysregulation of miR-708 in pMΦ in the absence of GATA6 during homeostasis and in response to LPS/IFN-γ stimulation. Overexpression of miR-708 in mouse pMΦ in vivo altered 167 mRNA species demonstrating functional downregulation of predicted targets, including cell immune responses and cell cycle regulation. In conclusion, we demonstrate dependence of the microRNA transcriptome on tissue-specific programming of tissue macrophages as exemplified by the role of GATA6 in pMΦ specialization.

Differential expression of microRNA miR-150-5p in IgA nephropathy as a potential mediator and marker of disease progression.

Understanding why certain patients with IgA nephropathy progress to kidney failure while others maintain normal kidney function remains a major unanswered question. To help answer this, we performed miRNome profiling by next generation sequencing of kidney biopsies in order to identify microRNAs specifically associated with the risk of IgA nephropathy progression. Following sequencing and validation in independent cohorts, four microRNAs (-150-5p, -155-5p, -146b-5p, -135a-5p) were found to be differentially expressed in IgA nephropathy progressors compared to non-progressors, and patients with thin membrane nephropathy, lupus nephritis and membranous nephropathy, and correlated with estimated glomerular filtration rate, proteinuria, and the Oxford MEST-C scores (five histological features that are independent predictors of clinical outcome). Each individual microRNA increased the discrimination score of the International IgAN Prediction Tool, although due to the small number of samples the results did not reach statistical significance. miR-150-5p exhibited the largest amplitude of expression between cohorts and displayed the best discrimination between IgA nephropathy progressors and non-progressors by receiver operating curve analysis (AUC: 0.8). However, expression was similarly upregulated in kidneys with established fibrosis and low estimated glomerular filtration rates at the time of biopsy. Consistent with a more generic role in kidney fibrosis, in situ hybridization revealed that miR-150-5p was found in lymphoid infiltrates, and areas of proliferation and fibrosis consistent with the known drivers of progression. Thus, miR-150-5p may be a potential functional mediator of kidney fibrosis that may add value in predicting risk of progression in IgA nephropathy and other kidney diseases.

Hyaluronidase-2 Regulates RhoA Signaling, Myofibroblast Contractility, and Other Key Profibrotic Myofibroblast Functions.

Hyaluronidase (HYAL)-2 is a weak, acid-active, hyaluronan-degrading enzyme broadly expressed in somatic tissues. Aberrant HYAL2 expression is implicated in diverse pathology. However, a significant proportion of HYAL2 is enzymatically inactive; thus the mechanisms through which HYAL2 dysregulation influences pathobiology are unclear. Recently, nonenzymatic HYAL2 functions have been described, and nuclear HYAL2 has been shown to influence mRNA splicing to prevent myofibroblast differentiation. Myofibroblasts drive fibrosis, thereby promoting progressive tissue damage and leading to multimorbidity. This study identifies a novel HYAL2 cytoplasmic function in myofibroblasts that is unrelated to its enzymatic activity. In fibroblasts and myofibroblasts, HYAL2 interacts with the GTPase-signaling small molecule ras homolog family member A (RhoA). Transforming growth factor beta 1-driven fibroblast-to-myofibroblast differentiation promotes HYAL2 cytoplasmic relocalization to bind to the actin cytoskeleton. Cytoskeletal-bound HYAL2 functions as a key regulator of downstream RhoA signaling and influences profibrotic myofibroblast functions, including myosin light-chain kinase-mediated myofibroblast contractility, myofibroblast migration, myofibroblast collagen/fibronectin deposition, as well as connective tissue growth factor and matrix metalloproteinase-2 expression. These data demonstrate that, in certain biological contexts, the nonenzymatic effects of HYAL2 are crucial in orchestrating RhoA signaling and downstream pathways that are important for full profibrotic myofibroblast functionality. In conjunction with previous data demonstrating the influence of HYAL2 on RNA splicing, these findings begin to explain the broad biological effects of HYAL2.

Unravelling the broader complexity of IL-6 involvement in health and disease.

The classification of interleukin-6 (IL-6) as a pro-inflammatory cytokine undervalues the biological impact of this cytokine in health and disease. With broad activities affecting the immune system, tissue homeostasis and metabolic processes, IL-6 displays complex biology. The significance of these involvements has become increasingly important in clinical settings where IL-6 is identified as a prominent target for therapy. Here, clinical experience with IL-6 antagonists emphasises the need to understand the context-dependent properties of IL-6 within an inflammatory environment and the anticipated or unexpected consequences of IL-6 blockade. In this review, we will describe the immunobiology of IL-6 and explore the gamut of IL-6 bioactivity affecting the clinical response to biological drugs targeting this cytokine pathway.

MicroRNA-21 (miR-21) expression in hypothermic machine perfusate may be predictive of early outcomes in kidney transplantation.

Hypothermic machine perfusion is effective in improving outcome following kidney transplantation. Molecular analyses of hypothermic machine perfusate (HMP) have the potential to identify biomarkers of organ viability prior to transplantation, offering significant advantages to the transplant surgeon, and leading to a potential increase in the organ donor pool. MicroRNAs are emerging as important biomarkers in the context of kidney injury and transplantation. Recent data demonstrate increased microRNA-21 (miR-21) expression in the kidney following acute kidney injury. This study investigated the potential of miR-21 detected in HMP to act as a sentinel for early kidney transplant outcomes. MiR-21 was found to be readily detectable in HMP by RT-qPCR. Eleven ECD kidneys were maintained on a hypothermic machine perfusion system for a median 627 (range 117-1027) minutes, and evaluation of flow and resistance characteristics suggested stability on the machine from 60 min post-perfusion. MiR-21 quantification at 60 min post-perfusion correlated with eGFR at 6 and 12 months post-transplantation. These data suggest that miR-21 expression in HMP may be predictive of early outcomes following kidney transplantation. In the era of ECD kidneys, a reliable measure of organ quality is urgently needed, and this study suggests miR-21 may be such a marker.

miR-192 induces G2/M growth arrest in aristolochic acid nephropathy.

Aristolochic acid nephropathy is characterized by rapidly progressive tubulointerstitial nephritis culminating in end-stage renal failure and urothelial malignancy. Profibrotic effects of aristolochic acid are linked to growth arrest of proximal tubular epithelial cells; however, the underlying mechanisms are largely undetermined. miRNAs are small, endogenous, post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression implicated in numerous physiological and pathological processes. In the present study, we characterized the mechanism of aristolochic acid-induced cell cycle arrest and its regulation by miRNAs. Incubation with aristolochic acid led to profound G2/M arrest in proximal tubular epithelial cells via p53-mediated inactivation of the maturation-promoting complex, CDK1/cyclin-B1. Analysis of miRNA expression identified up-regulation of miRNAs, including miR-192, miR-194, miR-450a, and miR-542-3p. The stable overexpression of miR-192 recapitulated G2/M arrest via repression of the E3 ubiquitin ligase, murine double-minute 2, a negative regulator of p53. p53-induced transcription of p21(cip1) and growth arrest and DNA damage 45 and resulted in the inactivation and dissociation of the maturation-promoting complex. These data demonstrate a core role for miR-192 in mediating proximal tubular epithelial cell G2/M arrest after toxic injury by aristolochic acid. Because numerous studies have linked such growth arrest to fibrosis after proximal tubular epithelial cell injury, this mechanism may have widespread relevance to recovery/nonrecovery after acute kidney injury.

Acute kidney injury: a paradigm for miRNA regulation of the cell cycle.

miRNAs are small, endogenous, post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression. AKI (acute kidney injury) of various aetiologies, including trauma, sepsis and IRI (ischaemia/reperfusion injury) in the context of kidney transplantation, or drug toxicity, has a high morbidity and mortality rate and presents a significant burden to health services worldwide. AKI primarily affects the renal cortex, in particular PTCs (proximal tubular epithelial cells). Current research demonstrates causality between G2/M cell cycle arrest of PTCs and AKI. Recent findings from our laboratory and others presented in this review implicate miRNA regulation of the cell cycle in the pathology of AKI.

MicroRNAs, transforming growth factor beta-1, and tissue fibrosis.

MicroRNAs are short noncoding RNA regulators that repress synthesis of their targets post-transcriptionally. On average, each microRNA is estimated to regulate several hundred protein-coding genes, and about 60% of proteins are thought to be regulated by microRNAs in total. A subset of these genes, including the key profibrotic cytokine transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-ß1), exhibits particularly strong levels of post-transcriptional control of protein synthesis, involving microRNAs and other mechanisms. Changes in microRNA expression pattern are linked to profound effects on cell phenotype, and microRNAs have an emerging role in diverse physiological and pathological processes. In this review, we provide an overview of microRNA biology with a focus on their emerging role in diseases typified by organ fibrosis.

Lentiviral Vector Preparation for Efficient Gene and MicroRNA Modulation of Peritoneal Cavity Tissue-Resident Macrophages In Vivo in Mice.

Peritoneal tissue-resident macrophages have broad functions in the maintenance of homeostasis and are involved in pathologies within local and neighboring tissues. Their functions are dictated by microenvironmental cues; thus, it is essential to investigate their behavior in an in vivo physiological niche. Currently, specific peritoneal macrophage-targeting methodologies employ whole-mouse transgenic models. Here, a protocol for effective in vivo modulation of mRNA and small RNA species (e.g., microRNA) expression in peritoneal macrophages using lentivirus particles is described. Lentivirus preparations were made in HEK293T cells and purified on a single sucrose layer. In vivo validation of lentivirus effectivity following intraperitoneal injection revealed predominant infection of macrophages restricted to local tissue. Targeting of peritoneal macrophages was successful during homeostasis and thioglycolate-induced peritonitis. The limitations of the protocol, including low-level inflammation induced by intraperitoneal delivery of lentivirus and time restrictions for potential experiments, are discussed. Overall, this study presents a quick and accessible protocol for the rapid assessment of gene function in peritoneal macrophages in vivo.

Caspase-8 promotes scramblase-mediated phosphatidylserine exposure and fusion of osteoclast precursors.

Efficient cellular fusion of mononuclear precursors is the prerequisite for the generation of fully functional multinucleated bone-resorbing osteoclasts. However, the exact molecular factors and mechanisms controlling osteoclast fusion remain incompletely understood. Here we identify RANKL-mediated activation of caspase-8 as early key event during osteoclast fusion. Single cell RNA sequencing-based analyses suggested that activation of parts of the apoptotic machinery accompanied the differentiation of osteoclast precursors into mature multinucleated osteoclasts. A subsequent characterization of osteoclast precursors confirmed that RANKL-mediated activation of caspase-8 promoted the non-apoptotic cleavage and activation of downstream effector caspases that translocated to the plasma membrane where they triggered activation of the phospholipid scramblase Xkr8. Xkr8-mediated exposure of phosphatidylserine, in turn, aided cellular fusion of osteoclast precursors and thereby allowed generation of functional multinucleated osteoclast syncytia and initiation of bone resorption. Pharmacological blockage or genetic deletion of caspase-8 accordingly interfered with fusion of osteoclasts and bone resorption resulting in increased bone mass in mice carrying a conditional deletion of caspase-8 in mononuclear osteoclast precursors. These data identify a novel pathway controlling osteoclast biology and bone turnover with the potential to serve as target for therapeutic intervention during diseases characterized by pathologic osteoclast-mediated bone loss. Proposed model of osteoclast fusion regulated by caspase-8 activation and PS exposure. RANK/RANK-L interaction. Activation of procaspase-8 into caspase-8. Caspase-8 activates caspase-3. Active capase-3 cleaves Xkr8. Local PS exposure is induced. Exposed PS is recognized by the fusion partner. FUSION. PS is re-internalized.

Transforming growth factor ß1 represses proximal tubular cell microRNA-192 expression through decreased hepatocyte nuclear factor DNA binding.

miR (microRNA)-192 plays key roles in renal pathological and physiological responses, by repressing targets including Zeb1, Zeb2 and Wnk1. In the present study, we have assessed the regulation of miR-192 expression. We found that TGF-ß1 (transforming growth factor ß1) down-regulates miR-192 and miR-194, co-transcribed in the shared precursor pri-miR (primary miR transcript)-192/194. Luciferase reporter analysis showed constitutive promoter activity within nucleotides +21 to -223. We identified HNF (hepatocyte nuclear factor) and p53 binding sites within this region that were required for constitutive promoter activity, which was decreased by TGF-ß1 through an Alk5-dependent mechanism. TGF-ß1 treatment decreased HNF binding to the miR-194-2/192 promoter, whereas knockdown of HNF-1 inhibited mature miR-192 and miR-194 expression. miR-192, miR-194 and HNF expression were restricted to a defined subset of human tissues including kidney, small intestine, colon and liver. Our results from the present study identify co-ordinated regulation of miR-192 and miR-194, with binding of HNF and p53 transcription factors necessary for activation of transcription, and TGF-ß1-mediated repression through decreased HNF binding to its cognate promoter element.

Pleiotropy of microRNA-192 in the kidney.

Diverse aetiologies result in significant deviation from homoeostasis in the kidney, leading to CKD (chronic kidney disease). CKD progresses to end-stage renal disease principally as a result of renal fibrosis, although the molecular mechanisms underlying this fibrotic process are still poorly understood. miRNAs (microRNAs) are a recently discovered family of endogenous short single-stranded RNAs that regulate global gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. The recent findings from our laboratory and others discussed in the present review outline pleiotropic roles for miR-192 in renal homoeostasis and in the fibrotic kidney. We describe miR-192-driven anti-and pro-fibrotic effects via the repression of ZEB1 and ZEB2 (zinc finger E-box-binding homeobox proteins 1 and 2), resulting in changes in extracellular matrix deposition and cell differentiation.

Making sense of IL-6 signalling cues in pathophysiology.

Unravelling the molecular mechanisms that account for functional pleiotropy is a major challenge for researchers in cytokine biology. Cytokine-receptor cross-reactivity and shared signalling pathways are considered primary drivers of cytokine pleiotropy. However, reports epitomized by studies of Jak-STAT cytokine signalling identify interesting biochemical and epigenetic determinants of transcription factor regulation that affect the delivery of signal-dependent cytokine responses. Here, a regulatory interplay between STAT transcription factors and their convergence to specific genomic enhancers support the fine-tuning of cytokine responses controlling host immunity, functional identity, and tissue homeostasis and repair. In this review, we provide an overview of the signalling networks that shape the way cells sense and interpret cytokine cues. With an emphasis on the biology of interleukin-6, we highlight the importance of these mechanisms to both physiological processes and pathophysiological outcomes.

Determination of a microRNA signature of protective kidney ischemic preconditioning originating from proximal tubules.

Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) is effective in limiting subsequent ischemic acute kidney injury in experimental models. MicroRNAs are an important class of post-transcriptional regulator and show promise as biomarkers of kidney injury. We evaluated the time- and dose-dependence of benefit from IPC in a rat model of functional (bilateral) ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). We found optimal protection from subsequent injury following short, repetitive sequences of preconditioning insult. We subsequently used hybridization array and microRNA sequencing to characterize microRNA signatures of protective IPC and of IRI. These approaches identified a profile of microRNA changes consequent on IRI, that were limited by prior IPC. To localize these signals within the kidney, we used laser capture microdissection and RT-qPCR to measure microRNA abundance in nephron segments, pinpointing microRNA changes principally to glomeruli and proximal tubules. Our data describe a unique microRNA signature for IRI in the rat kidney. Pulsatile IPC reduces kidney damage following IRI and diminishes this microRNA signal. We have also identified candidate microRNAs that may act as biomarkers of injury and therapeutic targets in this context.

miR-141 mediates recovery from acute kidney injury.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a global clinical problem characterised by a sudden decline in renal function and mortality as high as 60%. Current AKI biomarkers have limited ability to classify disease progression and identify underlying pathological mechanisms. Here we hypothesised that alterations in urinary microRNA profiles could predict AKI recovery/nonrecovery after 90 days, and that injury-specific changes would signify microRNA mediators of AKI pathology. Comparison of urinary microRNA profiles from AKI patients with controls detected significant injury-specific increases in miR-21, miR-126 and miR-141 (p < 0.05) and decreases in miR-192 (p < 0.001) and miR-204 (p < 0.05). Expression of miR-141 increased in renal proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTECs) under oxidative stress in vitro and unilateral ischaemic reperfusion injury in vivo. Forced miR-141 expression in the presence of H2O2 increased PTEC death and decreased cell viability. Of nine messenger RNA targets with two or more miR-141 3'-untranslated region binding sites, we confirmed protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type G (PTPRG) as a direct miR-141 target in PTECs. PTPRG-specific siRNA knockdown under oxidative stress increased PTEC death and decreased cell viability. In conclusion, we detected significant alterations in five urinary microRNAs following AKI, and identified proximal tubular cell PTPRG as a putative novel therapeutic target.

Modulation of TGFbeta1-dependent myofibroblast differentiation by hyaluronan.

Myofibroblasts are contractile cells that are characterized by the expression of alpha-smooth muscle actin and mediate the closure of wounds and the formation of collagen-rich scars. Their presence in organs such as lungs, liver, and kidney has long been established as a marker of progressive fibrosis. The transforming growth factor beta(1)-driven differentiation of fibroblasts is a major source of myofibroblasts, and recent data have shown that hyaluronan is a major modulator of this process. This study examines this differentiation mechanism in more detail. Transforming growth factor beta(1)-dependent differentiation to the myofibroblastic phenotype was antagonized by the inhibition of hyaluronan synthesis, confirming that hyaluronan was necessary for differentiation. This response, however, was not reproduced by simply adding hyaluronan to fibroblasts, as the results implicated hyaladherins, as well as the macromolecular assembly of de novo hyaluronan, as essential in this process. We previously suggested that there is a relocalization of lipid-raft components during myofibroblastic differentiation. The present study demonstrates that the hyaluronan receptor CD44, the hyaluronidase HYAL 2, and the transforming growth factor beta(1)-receptor ALK5 all relocalized from raft to non-raft locations, which was reversed by the addition of exogenous hyaluronan. These data highlight a role for endogenous hyaluronan in the mediation of myofibroblastic differentiation. While hyaluronan synthesis was both essential and necessary for differentiation, exogenously provided hyaluronan antagonized differentiation, underscoring a pathological role for hyaluronan in such cell fate processes.

Effective In Vivo Gene Modification in Mouse Tissue-Resident Peritoneal Macrophages by Intraperitoneal Delivery of Lentiviral Vectors.

Tissue-resident macrophages exhibit specialized phenotypes dependent on their in vivo physiological niche. Investigation of their function often relies upon complex whole mouse transgenic studies. While some appropriate lineage-associated promoters exist, there are no options for tissue-specific targeting of macrophages. We have developed full protocols for in vivo productive infection (defined by stable transgene expression) of tissue-resident macrophages with lentiviral vectors, enabling RNA and protein overexpression, including expression of small RNA species such as shRNA, to knock down and modulate gene expression. These approaches allow robust infection of peritoneal tissue-resident macrophages without significant infection of other cell populations. They permit rapid functional study of macrophages in homeostatic and inflammatory settings, such as thioglycolate-induced peritonitis, while maintaining the cells in their physiological context. Here we provide detailed protocols for the whole workflow: viral production, purification, and quality control; safety considerations for administration of the virus to mice; and assessment of in vivo transduction efficiency and the low background levels of inflammation induced by the virus. In summary, we present a quick and accessible protocol for the rapid assessment of gene function in peritoneal tissue-resident macrophages in vivo.

Erratum: Effective In Vivo Gene Modification in Mouse Tissue-Resident Peritoneal Macrophages by Intraperitoneal Delivery of Lentiviral Vectors.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2019.10.004.].

A urinary microRNA panel that is an early predictive biomarker of delayed graft function following kidney transplantation.

Predicting immediate and subsequent graft function is important in clinical decision-making around kidney transplantation, but is difficult using available approaches. Here we have evaluated urinary microRNAs as biomarkers in this context. Profiling of 377 microRNAs in the first urine passed post-transplantation identified 6 microRNAs, confirmed to be upregulated by RT-qPCR in an expanded cohort (miR-9, -10a, -21, -29a, -221, and -429, n = 33, P < 0.05 for each). Receiver operating characteristic analysis showed Area Under the Curve 0.94 for this panel. To establish whether this early signal was sustained, miR-21 was measured daily for 5 days post-transplant, and was consistently elevated in those developing Delayed Graft Function (n = 165 samples from 33 patients, p < 0.05). The biomarker panel was then evaluated in an independent cohort, sampled at varying times in the first week post-transplantation in a separate transplant center. When considered individually, all miRs in the panel showed a trend to increase or a significant increase in those developing delayed Graft Function (miR-9: P = 0.068, mIR-10a: P = 0.397, miR-21: P = 0.003, miR-29a: P = 0.019, miR-221: P = 0.1, and miR-429: P = 0.013, n = 47) with Area Under the Curve 0.75 for the panel. In conclusion, combined measurement of six microRNAs had predictive value for delayed graft function following kidney transplantation.

Neutrophil-derived miR-223 as local biomarker of bacterial peritonitis.

Infection remains a major cause of morbidity, mortality and technique failure in patients with end stage kidney failure who receive peritoneal dialysis (PD). Recent research suggests that the early inflammatory response at the site of infection carries diagnostically relevant information, suggesting that organ and pathogen-specific "immune fingerprints" may guide targeted treatment decisions and allow patient stratification and risk prediction at the point of care. Here, we recorded microRNA profiles in the PD effluent of patients presenting with symptoms of acute peritonitis and show that elevated peritoneal miR-223 and reduced miR-31 levels were useful predictors of bacterial infection. Cell culture experiments indicated that miR-223 was predominantly produced by infiltrating immune cells (neutrophils, monocytes), while miR-31 was mainly derived from the local tissue (mesothelial cells, fibroblasts). miR-223 was found to be functionally stabilised in PD effluent from peritonitis patients, with a proportion likely to be incorporated into neutrophil-derived exosomes. Our study demonstrates that microRNAs are useful biomarkers of bacterial infection in PD-related peritonitis and have the potential to contribute to disease-specific immune fingerprints. Exosome-encapsulated microRNAs may have a functional role in intercellular communication between immune cells responding to the infection and the local tissue, to help clear the infection, resolve the inflammation and restore homeostasis.