Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) behaviour change research: why an analysis of contingencies of reinforcement is needed.

Diarrheal disease associated with poor water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) kills more than one million people every year. Safe WASH practices have the potential to greatly reduce these statistics but behaviour change interventions in the field have yielded little success to date. Currently, there is an emphasis on addressing cognitive processes to bring about changes in behaviour. In this review, a case is made for the benefits of a contingency-based perspective, focusing on the contextual antecedents and consequences of behaviour. The role of contingencies of reinforcement, not explored in previous WASH literature, is discussed as an explanatory framework for designing behaviour change strategies. A proper use of contrived reinforcers is recommended to counterbalance the natural reinforcers of convenience associated with risk practices. Recognising the role of consequences in the acquisition and maintenance of behaviour is an important step in the search for the answers urgently needed in the WASH field.

The Scientific Image in Behavior Analysis.

Throughout the history of science, the scientific image has played a significant role in communication. With recent developments in computing technology, there has been an increase in the kinds of opportunities now available for scientists to communicate in more sophisticated ways. Within behavior analysis, though, we are only just beginning to appreciate the importance of going beyond the printing press to elucidate basic principles of behavior. The aim of this manuscript is to stimulate appreciation of both the role of the scientific image and the opportunities provided by a quick response code (QR code) for enhancing the functionality of the printed page. I discuss the limitations of imagery in behavior analysis ("Introduction"), and I show examples of what can be done with animations and multimedia for teaching philosophical issues that arise when teaching about private events ("Private Events 1 and 2"). Animations are also useful for bypassing ethical issues when showing examples of challenging behavior ("Challenging Behavior"). Each of these topics can be accessed only by scanning the QR code provided. This contingency has been arranged to help the reader embrace this new technology. In so doing, I hope to show its potential for going beyond the limitations of the printing press.

Creating an Inclusive Society How Close are We in Relation to Autism Spectrum Disorder? A General Population Survey.

BACKGROUND: Children with autism spectrum disorder are increasingly educated in mainstream classrooms in the United Kingdom (Wilkinson & Twist, Autism and Educational Assessment: UK Policy and Practice. NFER, Slough, 2010), and some employers are now specifically seeking out staff on the autism spectrum. Does that mean that we are living in an 'inclusive society' [United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), Creating an Inclusive Society: Practical Strategies to Promote Social Integration 2008], in the sense that inequalities are reduced and full economic, social and cultural participation is advanced for individuals with autism? METHODS: A general population survey was conducted to assess how close we, as a society, are to an inclusive society for individuals with autism in Northern Ireland. Public attitudes were examined to (i) visibility and social interaction, (ii) aetiology, needs and interventions, and (iii) rights and resources. RESULTS: A stratified, representative sample of 1204 adults took part in the survey; of these, 989 were aware of autism and their attitudes and behavioural projections reflected a mix of acceptance and denunciation. The level of confusion with regard to interventions reflected the general uncertainty within UK policy regarding meeting the needs of individuals on the autism spectrum (International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 61, 134, 2014a). CONCLUSION: Therefore, it seems that inclusion is working to an extent, but more clarity is needed with regard to adequate education, intervention and support for individuals with autism.

Correction: Professional Development of Behavior Analysts in Europe: A Snapshot for 21 Countries.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1007/s40617-022-00754-0.].

Professional Development of Behavior Analysts in Europe: A Snapshot for 21 Countries.

Behavior analysts are not recognized or regulated as a distinct profession in Europe. For the most part, European behavior analysts adhered to the standards set by the U.S.-based Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB). However, the BACB certification has not been recognized officially in any European jurisdiction. The recent decision by the BACB to discontinue eligibility of non-U.S. residents to apply for the BCBA exam by the end of 2022 has brought the issue of professional regulation outside of the United States into sharp focus. This article offers a snapshot in time of professional recognition of behavior analysts in 21 European countries. It stems from the Erasmus+ funded EuroBA project and its Professional Advisory Group (PAG). The EuroBA project aims to develop common standards and competences for behavior analysts to facilitate national regulation and mutual recognition across Europe.

Investigating Gaze Behaviour of Children Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorders in a Classroom Setting.

A defining feature of ASD is atypical gaze behaviour, however, eye-tracking studies in 'real-world' settings are limited, and the possibility of improving gaze behaviour for ASD children is largely unexplored. This study investigated gaze behaviour of ASD and typically developing (TD) children in their classroom setting. Eye-tracking technology was used to develop and pilot an operant training tool to positively reinforce typical gaze behaviour towards faces. Visual and statistical analyses of eye-tracking data revealed different gaze behaviour patterns during live interactions for ASD and TD children depending on the interaction type. All children responded to operant training with longer looking times observed on face stimuli post training. The promising application of operant gaze training in ecologically valid settings is discussed.

Children's emergent relations of equivalence using stimuli with opposite verbal labels: Exclusion and minimal training conditions.

The present study examined different conditions under which exclusion responding in conditional discrimination tasks would generate emergent equivalence relations in young children based on shared relationships with verbal labels. Both visual stimuli (Sets A, B, C, and D) and auditory stimuli (spoken words, Set N: N1 "correct"; N2: "incorrect") were used. Following a pilot study, three experiments were conducted, each involving eight preschool children. These experiments systematically investigated under which conditions responding by exclusion (i.e., responding away from a designated S- comparison in a matching to sample context) would generate sufficiently stable sample-S+ relations for arbitrary stimulus classes to establish. The results showed that young children's exclusion responding under test conditions will only contribute to arbitrary stimulus class formation and expansion when training has already established two arbitrary stimulus classes involving at least two stimuli each. For young children to demonstrate emergent conditional discrimination performances that are indicative of the formation of equivalence relations, it is necessary to have training and/or reinforced exposure to both S+ and S- control elements required for deriving the appropriate emergent relations with at least two conditional relations involving different samples. These findings not only contribute to existing research and theory on the conditions under which exclusion responding may contribute to fundamental language and learning processes, they also contribute to the experimental predictability of emergent conditional matching behaviours in preschool children by further unravelling the conditions under which emergent matching based on exclusion generates arbitrary conditional relations of equivalence.

Can Social Communication Skills for Children Diagnosed With Autism Spectrum Disorder Rehearsed Inside the Video Game Environment of Minecraft Generalize to the Real World?

In this paper, we outline opportunities within the video game environment for building skills applicable to real-world issues faced by some children. The game Minecraft is extremely popular and of particular interest to children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Although the game has been used by support communities to facilitate the social interaction of children and peer support for their parents, little has been done to examine how social skills developed within the game environment generalize to the real world. Social Craft aims to establish a framework in which key social communication skills would be rehearsed in-game with a view to facilitating their replication in a similarly contained real-world environment. Central to this approach is an understanding of the basic principles of behavior and the engagement of a sound methodology for the collection of data inside and outside the respective environments.

Using video modeling to teach complex social sequences to children with autism.

This study comprised of two experiments was designed to teach complex social sequences to children with autism. Experimental control was achieved by collecting data using means of within-system design methodology. Across a number of conditions children were taken to a room to view one of the four short videos of two people engaging in a simple sequence of activities. Then, each child's behavior was assessed in the same room. Results showed that this video modeling procedure enhanced the social initiation skills of all children. It also facilitated reciprocal play engagement and imitative responding of a sequence of behaviors, in which social initiation was not included. These behavior changes generalized across peers and maintained after a 1- and 2-month follow-up period.

Staff Training in Autism: The One-Eyed Wo/Man .

Having well-trained staff is key to ensuring good quality autism services, especially since people affected with autism generally tend to have higher support needs than other populations in terms of daily living, as well as their mental and physical health. Poorly-trained staff can have detrimental effects on service provision and staff morale and can lead to staff burn-out, as well as increased service user anxiety and stress. This paper reports on a survey with health, social care, and education staff who work within the statutory autism services sector in the UK that explored their knowledge and training with regards to autism. Interview data obtained from staff and service users offer qualitative illustrations of survey findings. Overall, the findings expose an acute lack of autism-specific training that has detrimental impacts. At best, this training was based on brief and very basic awareness raising rather than on in-depth understanding of issues related to autism or skills for evidence-based practice. Service users were concerned with the effects that the lack of staff training had on the services they received. The paper concludes with a discussion of policy routes to achieving quality staff training based on international best practice. The focus is on improving the quality of life and mental health for services users and staff, as well as making potentially significant cost-savings for governments.

The Millennium child with autism: early childhood trajectories for health, education and economic wellbeing.

OBJECTIVE: Most of what we know about children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is based on post-diagnostic, retrospective, self-select studies. Oftentimes, there is no direct comparison between trajectories of children with ASD and children without ASD. METHODS: To circumvent both of these problems, the present secondary data analysis utilised a large-scale longitudinal general population survey of children born in the year 2000 (i.e. the Millennium Cohort Study; MCS; n = 18,522). Bi-annual MCS data were available from five data sweeps (children aged 9 months to 11 years of age). RESULTS: Pre-diagnostic data showed early health problems differentiated children later diagnosed with autism from non-diagnosed peers. Prevalence was much higher than previously estimated (3.5% for 11-year olds). Post-diagnosis, trajectories deteriorated significantly for the children with ASD and their families in relation to education, health and economic wellbeing. CONCLUSION: These findings raise many issues for service delivery and the rights of persons with disabilities and their families.