Associations between Stunting, Wasting and Body Composition: A Longitudinal Study in 6- to 15-Month-Old Kenyan Children.

BACKGROUND: Early growth and body composition may influence the risk of obesity and health in adulthood. Few studies have examined how undernutrition is associated with body composition in early life. OBJECTIVES: We assessed stunting and wasting as correlates of body composition in young Kenyan children. METHODS: Nested in a randomized controlled nutrition trial, this longitudinal study assessed fat and fat-free mass (FM, FFM) using deuterium dilution technique among children at age 6 and 15 months. This trial was registered at http://controlled-trials.com/ (ISRCTN30012997). Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between z-score categories of length-for-age (LAZ) or weight-for-length (WLZ) and FM, FFM, fat mass index (FMI), fat-free mass index (FFMI), triceps, and subscapular skinfolds were analyzed by linear mixed models. RESULTS: Among the 499 children enrolled, breastfeeding declined from 99% to 87%, stunting increased from 13% to 32%, and wasting remained at 2% to 3% between 6 and 15 mo. Compared with LAZ >0, stunted children had a 1.12 kg (95% CI: 0.88, 1.36; P < 0.001) lower FFM at 6 mo and increased to 1.59 kg (95% CI: 1.25, 1.94; P < 0.001) at 15 mo, corresponding to differences of 18% and 17%, respectively. When analyzing FFMI, the deficit in FFM tended to be less than proportional to children's height at 6 mo (P ≤ 0.060) but not at 15 mo (P > 0.40). Stunting was associated with 0.28 kg (95% CI: 0.09, 0.47; P = 0.004) lower FM at 6 mo. However, this association was not significant at 15 mo, and stunting was not associated with FMI at any time point. A lower WLZ was generally associated with lower FM, FFM, FMI, and FFMI at 6 and 15 mo. Differences in FFM, but not FM, increased with time, whereas FFMI differences did not change, and FMI differences generally decreased with time. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, low LAZ and WLZ among young Kenyan children were associated with reduced lean tissue, which may have long-term health consequences.

Effect of locally produced complementary foods on fat-free mass, linear growth, and iron status among Kenyan infants: A randomized controlled trial.

The impact of quality complementary food products on infant growth and body composition has not been adequately investigated. This study evaluated the effect on fat-free mass (FFM) accrual, linear growth, and iron status of locally produced complementary food products comparing to a standard product. In a randomized, double-blind trial, 499 infants at 6 months received nine monthly rations of (a) WinFood Classic (WFC) comprising germinated amaranth (71%), maize (10.4%), small fish (3%), and edible termites (10%); (b) WinFood Lite (WFL) comprising germinated amaranth (82.5%), maize (10.2%), and multimicronutrient premix; or (c) fortified corn-soy blend plus (CSB+). Primary outcomes were changes in FFM, length, and plasma ferritin and transferrin receptors (TfR). FFM was determined using deuterium dilution. Analysis was by intention to treat, based on available cases. Compared with CSB+, there were no differences in change from 6 to 15 months in FFM for WFC 0.0 kg (95% CI [-0.30, 0.29]) and WFL 0.03 kg (95% CI [-0.25, 0.32]) and length change for WFC -0.3 cm (95% CI [-0.9, 0.4]) and WFL -0.3 cm (95% CI [-0.9, 0.3]). TfR increased in WFC group 3.3 mg L-1 (95% CI [1.7, 4.9]) and WFL group 1.7 mg L-1 (95% CI [0.1, 3.4]) compared with CSB+. Compared with the increase in Hb in CSB+ group, there was a reduction in Hb in WFC of -0.9 g dl-1 (95% CI [-1.3, -0.5]) and a lower increase in WFL -0.4 g dl-1 (95% CI [-0.8, 0.0]). In conclusion, the tested WinFoods had the same effect on FFM and length as CSB+, whereas Hb and iron status decreased, suggesting inhibited iron bioavailability from the amaranth-based WinFoods.

Exploring the Influence of Differentiated Nutrition Information on Consumers' Mental Models Regarding Foods from Edible Insects: A Means-End Chain Analysis.

This study used a field experiment and means-end chain analysis to examine the effects of positive and perceived negative nutrition information on the households' motivations to consume insect-based foods. It used a random sample of households drawn from rural communities in Kenya. The study found that provision of nutrition information on benefits of edible insects and perceived negative aspects of insect-based foods influences participants' perceptions of insect-based foods and hence acceptance. We also found that tasting real products influenced the nature of mental constructs. The results provide marketers of edible insects with potential marketing messages for promotion.

Growth performance, biochemical and haematological parameters of BALB/c mice fed on staple grains and bee larvae (Apis Mellifera) blended complementary foods.

In Sub-Saharan Africa, inadequate complementary feeding practices and being nutritionally inadequate are primary factors in infant and young child malnutrition, growth failure, and high morbidity and mortality. Therefore, novel complementary foods need to be developed to alleviate malnutrition problems in IYC. Therefore, this experimental study aimed to assess the effects of newly developed grain-bee larvae blended complementary foods on the growth performance, haematological, and biochemical parameters of BALB/c mice. A complete randomized design was used and a total of 75 BALB/c mice were assigned to each of the five treatments. The treatments were: T1 = Casein diet; T2 = 57 % Maize, 29 % Teff, 14 % Soybean; T3 = 58 % Maize, 29 % Teff, 13 % Bee larvae; T4 = Commercial wean mix; and T5 = Basal diet alone. The in vivo experiment trial was done for 28 days along with seven days of adaptation. Dietary intake was not significantly different (P = 0.96) between treatments, but it was noted that T3 had gained the highest final body weight (38.52 g). The examined biochemical parameters showed T4 had the lowest serum protein (6.27 mg/dl) and globulin (3.61 mg/dl). Compared to others, T3 significantly (P < 0.001) increased WBC (4 × 106 mm3), RBC (11.37 × 103 mm3), Haemoglobin (16.42 g/dl), and Hematocrit (63.04 %). The highest serum levels of zinc (0.55 mg/dl) and iron (2.08 mg/dl) were reported on T2, while the highest serum calcium content (10.64 mg/dl) was reported on T1. The results indicated that T3 can aid body growth, health, and prevent malnutrition in infants and young children.

Growth and Reproductive Performance of Edible Grasshopper (Ruspolia differens) on Different Artificial Diets.

Ruspolia differens (Serville) (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae), also known as the 'edible grasshopper', 'African edible bush-cricket', and 'nsenene', is regarded as one of the most promising edible insect species that can be used for food, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, there is insufficient information on suitable diets and their effects on survival, adult weight, fecundity, and developmental time of this species, which are preconditions for large-scale production. In this study, we experimentally evaluated the effects of 12 diets (wheat bran, rice seed head, finger millet seed head, soya bran, maize bran, fresh maize comb, millet flour, chicken feed egg booster, simsim cake, sorghum seed head, powdered groundnut, and germinated finger millet), that are known to be accepted by R. differens, on their growth and reproductive parameters. The survival rate, developmental time, and adult weight varied considerably on the various diets. The highest nymphal survival rates, shortest development times, and highest adult weights were recorded for both sexes when fed fresh maize comb and germinated finger millet diet. Lifetime fecundity of females fed on germinated finger millet also was, on average, more than twice higher compared to other diets. The present study demonstrated that relatively inexpensive and locally available germinated finger millet, fresh maize seed (at the silking stage on the comb), sorghum seedhead, and finger millet seedhead could be successfully used to rear and sustain populations of R. differens. Our findings contribute to the future design of an effective mass-rearing system for this economically important edible insect.

In Vitro Study of Cricket Chitosan's Potential as a Prebiotic and a Promoter of Probiotic Microorganisms to Control Pathogenic Bacteria in the Human Gut.

In this study, cricket chitosan was used as a prebiotic. Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, and Bifidobacterium adolescentis were identified as probiotic bacteria. Cricket chitin was deacetylated to chitosan and added to either De Man Rogosa and Sharpe or Salmonella/Shigella bacterial growth media at the rates of 1%, 5%, 10%, or 20% to obtain chitosan-supplemented media. The growth of the probiotic bacteria was monitored on chitosan-supplemented media after 6, 12, 24, and 48 h upon incubation at 37 °C. Growth of Salmonella typhi in the presence of probiotic bacteria in chitosan-supplemented media was evaluated under similar conditions to those of the growth of probiotic bacteria by measuring growth inhibition zones (in mm) around the bacterial colonies. All chitosan concentrations significantly increased the populations of probiotic bacteria and decreased the populations of pathogenic bacteria. During growth, there was a significant pH change in the media with all probiotic bacteria. Inhibition zones from probiotic bacteria growth supernatant against Salmonella typhi were most apparent at 16 mm and statistically significant in connection with a 10% chitosan concentration. This study suggests cricket-derived chitosan can function as a prebiotic, with an ability to eliminate pathogenic bacteria in the presence of probiotic bacteria.

Nutritional Quality and Safety of Complementary Foods Developed from Blends of Staple Grains and Honey Bee Larvae (Apis mellifera).

Complementary foods must be adequate to satisfy the nutritional needs of the growing child together with breastfeeding. This study was aimed at evaluating the nutritional composition, microbial safety, and sensory quality of extruded complementary foods developed from blends of staple grains and insect bee larva (Apis mellifera). Teff, maize, soybean, and bee larva samples were milled to flour and blended before extrusion as follows: ComF01 (57% maize, 29% teff, and 14% soybean) and ComF02 (58% maize, 29% teff, and 13% bee larvae) using NutriSurvey software (version, 2007). Nutrient composition, microbial, and sensory analyses of developed flour blends were conducted using standard methods. The proximate composition of moisture, fat, fiber, carbohydrate, and energy was significantly different between the developed and commercial wean-mix foods. ComF02 recorded the highest fat content (14.3 g/100 g), energy (427.18 kcal/100 g), and vitamins A (706 µg/100 g), B3 (8.2 mg/100 g), and B9 (86.7 mg/100 g) while ComF01 had the highest protein content (12.56 g/100 g). Iron (40.94 mg/100 g) and calcium (68.20 mg/100 g) were the minerals with the highest content in ComF02. Both ComF01 and ComF02 met the recommended dietary allowance of nutrients for infants aged 6-12 months. Overall, the present study showed that bee larvae can be used to develop complementary foods that are nutritionally adequate, microbiologically safe, and sensory acceptable meeting the dietary allowance of infants at an acceptable level compared to conventional cereal-based foods.

Can black soldier fly Desmodium intortum larvae-based diets enhance the performance of Cobb500 broiler chickens and smallholder farmers' profit in Kenya?

This study aimed to evaluate the performance of broiler chickens fed on 3 black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) (Hermetia illucens) and Greenleaf desmodium (Desmodium intortum)-based meals. We evaluated growth performance, carcass quality, and profitability under various commercial pathways (doorstep, retail, whole, and assorted). Desmodium and BSFL powders were formulated into 3 ratios: T1 25:75, T2 50:50, and T3 75:25. A commercial feed was used as a control. One hundred and twenty mixed-sex 1-day-old broiler chicks (Cobb) were reared in pens for 42 d in a completely randomized design. The chickens were weighed weekly to monitor their growth rate. After the 42-day rearing period, they were slaughtered for carcass quality evaluation and recording of the weights of internal organs. During the initial growth phase (7-21 d), significant effects of fish meal replacement were found on the chickens' average weight (P < 0.001), average daily body weight gain (P < 0.001), average daily feed intake (P < 0.001), and feed conversion ratio (P < 0.001). However, during the second phase (21-42 d), no significant effect of the replacement was detected except on average daily feed intake (P = 0.003). No significant differences were found in terms of the relative weights of internal organs. It was found that Desmodium-BSFL-based feeds were more profitable than the control feed, and the assorted and retail modes of sale generated more revenue compared to when the chickens were sold at doorstep and on whole-chicken basis. The return on investment was higher for a push-pull adopter compared to a non-adopter. The study found that a BSFL-Desmodium mixture can be a valuable replacement for the protein component in conventional feed and would provide a new impetus for the adoption of push-pull.

Extrusion texturization of cricket flour and soy protein isolate: Influence of insect content, extrusion temperature, and moisture-level variation on textural properties.

Due to the increasing global population and unsustainable meat production, the future supply of animal-derived protein is predicted to be insufficient. Currently, edible insects are considered as a potential and "novel" source of protein in the development of palatable meat analogues. This research used high moisture extrusion cooking (HMEC), at a screw speed of 150 rpm, to produce meat analogues using full- or low-fat cricket flours (CF) and soy protein isolate (SPI). Effects of water flow rate (WFR), cooking temperature (9 and 10 ml/min; 120, 140, and 160°C, respectively), and CF inclusions levels of 0, 15, 30, and 45% were analyzed. Cooking temperature and CF inclusion had a significant effect (p < .05) on both tensile stress in parallel and perpendicular directions, while WFR had no significant effect (p = .3357 and 0.7700), respectively. The tensile stress increased with temperature but decreased with CF inclusion at both WFRs. Comparatively, the tensile stress was stronger at WFR of 9 ml/min than at 10 ml/min; however, the tensile stress in parallel was mostly greater than tensile stress in perpendicular directions. Fibrous meat analogues with high anisotropic indices (AIs) of up to 2.80 were obtained, particularly at WFR of 10 ml/min and at inclusions of 30% low-fat CF. By controlling HMEC conditions, full-/low-fat cricket flours at 15% and 30% inclusions can offer an opportunity to partially substitute SPI in manufacturing of fibrous meat analogues.

The role of product information on consumer sensory evaluation, expectations, experiences and emotions of cricket-flour-containing buns.

Studies suggest that consumer' acceptance of edible insects can be enhanced by processing and blending them with familiar food products. This is however, expected to result in changes in some sensory attributes. In this study, we investigated how consumers evaluate the appropriateness of sensory attributes of a common bakery product (buns) that was blended with cricket-flour i.e., cricket-flour-containing (CFC) buns. We also tested whether provision of information can modulate the sensory evaluations, personal involvement and emotions. The study is based on a field experiment involving 432 participants drawn from rural communities in Kenya. Participants were randomly assigned to 3 information treatment groups: i) Control group - received only general information, ii) Treatment 1 - received general information and information about the benefits (i.e., positive attributes), iii) Treatment 2 - received general information and information about the potential drawbacks (i.e., negative attributes). Participants evaluated the CFC buns before and after tasting using Just-About-Right (JAR) scale. Results indicate that providing product information affected sensory evaluation of the product's sensory attributes. They also indicate that actual tasting of the CFC buns improved the convergence of sensory evaluation of the attributes towards the ideal level. Results further show that CFC buns elicited more positive feelings with little differences in the emotional profiles between the information treatments, which suggests general interest in the buns. These results provide useful insights on how to enhance consumer acceptance of insect-based foods. We discuss the implications of the findings.

Traditions, beliefs and indigenous technologies in connection with the edible longhorn grasshopper Ruspolia differens (Serville 1838) in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Edible insects are an important source of food to many African populations. The longhorn grasshopper, Ruspolia differens (Serville 1838), commonly known as senene in Tanzania is one of the most appreciated edible insects by societies around Lake Victoria crescent. Senene is primarily an essential treat for the tribes around the lake, e.g., the Haya of Tanzania, Luo of Kenya and Baganda of Uganda. Despite its importance as a food item and appreciation as a delicacy, there are few studies dealing with culture, beliefs and indigenous technology in connection with the senene. The main objective of this study was to survey indigenous technologies, processing methods and traditions in relation to senene consumption among the Haya tribe in Kagera region of Tanzania. METHODS: Our ethnographic study was conducted through semi-structured interviews. A total of 51 locals, 26 females and 25 males aged 21 to 60 years were interviewed (with 3 female and 7 male key informants among them). Questions focused on cultures, beliefs and traditions towards senene consumption. Processing, preservation and shelf-life as well as nutritional knowledge were also investigated. RESULTS: Harvesting for household consumption was mainly done through wild collection. Traditionally made traps were mostly used for commercial harvesting. Deep frying was the most preferred processing method while smoking was the most preferred preservation method, with shelf-life of up to 12 months. Interesting traditions and taboos associated with senene consumption were identified, with men monopolising the insects as food by declaring the insects taboo for women and children. Deep fried senene in locally packed containers were mostly sold by street vendors, but also available from a variety of stores and supermarkets. CONCLUSION: Beyond being just an important traditional delicacy, senene is becoming increasingly popular, providing opportunity for local businesses. Indigenous technologies for harvesting, processing and preserving senene exist, but must be improved to meet food processing standards, thereby promoting commercialization. This carries economic potential essential for improving incomes and livelihoods of women and smallholder farmers, improving household level food security.