A multi-dimensional Sustainable Diet Index (SDI) for Ghanaian adults under transition: the RODAM Study.

BACKGROUND: The sustainability of diets consumed by African populations under socio-economic transition remains to be determined. This study developed and characterized a multi-dimensional Sustainable Diet Index (SDI) reflecting healthfulness, climate-friendliness, sociocultural benefits, and financial affordability using individual-level data of adults in rural and urban Ghana and Ghanaian migrants in Europe to identify the role of living environment in dietary sustainability. METHODS: We used cross-sectional data from the multi-centre Research on Obesity and Diabetes among African Migrants Study (N = 3169; age range: 25-70 years). For the SDI construct (0-16 score points), we used the Diet Quality Index-International, food-related greenhouse gas emission, the ratio of natural to processed foods, and the proportion of food expenditure from income. In linear regression analyses, we estimated the adjusted ß-coefficients and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the differences in mean SDI across study sites (using rural Ghana as a reference), accounting for sociodemographic and lifestyle factors. RESULTS: The overall mean SDI was 8.0 (95% CI: 7.9, 8.1). Participants in the highest SDI-quintile compared to lower quintiles were older, more often women, non-smokers, and alcohol abstainers. The highest mean SDI was seen in London (9.1; 95% CI: 8.9, 9.3), followed by rural Ghana (8.2; 95% CI: 8.0, 8.3), Amsterdam (7.9; 95% CI: 7.7, 8.1), Berlin (7.8; 95% CI: 7.6, 8.0), and urban Ghana (7.7; 95% CI: 7.5, 7.8). Compared to rural Ghana, the differences between study sites were attenuated after accounting for age, gender and energy intake. No further changes were observed after adjustment for lifestyle factors. CONCLUSION: The multi-dimensional SDI describes four dimensions of dietary sustainability in this Ghanaian population. Our findings suggest that living in Europe improved dietary sustainability, but the opposite seems true for urbanization in Ghana.

Unravelling the Belgian cascade of hypertension care and its determinants: insights from a cross-sectional analysis.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality worldwide. Despite the widespread availability of effective antihypertensives, blood pressure (BP) control rates remain suboptimal, even in high-income countries such as Belgium. In this study, we used a cascade of care approach to identify where most patients are lost along the continuum of hypertension care in Belgium, and to assess the main risk factors for attrition at various stages of hypertension management. METHODS: Using cross-sectional data from the 2018 Belgian Health Interview Survey and the Belgian Health Examination Survey, we estimated hypertension prevalence among the Belgian population aged 40-79 years, and the proportion that was (1) screened, (2) diagnosed, (3) linked to care, (4) in treatment, (5) followed up and (6) well-controlled. Cox regression models were estimated to identify individual risk factors for being unlinked to hypertension care, untreated and not followed up appropriately. RESULTS: The prevalence of hypertension based on self-reported and measured high BP was 43.3%. While 98% of the hypertensive population had their BP measured in the past 5 years, only 56.7% were diagnosed. Furthermore, 53.4% were linked to care, 49.8% were in treatment and 43.4% received adequate follow-up. Less than a quarter (23.5%) achieved BP control. Among those diagnosed with hypertension, males, those of younger age, without comorbidities, and smokers, were more likely to be unlinked to care. Once in care, younger age, lower BMI, financial hardship, and psychological distress were associated with a higher risk of being untreated. Finally, among those treated for hypertension, females, those of younger age, and without comorbidities were more likely to receive no adequate follow-up. CONCLUSION: Our results show that undiagnosed hypertension is the most significant barrier to BP control in Belgium. Health interventions are thus needed to improve the accurate and timely diagnosis of hypertension. Once diagnosed, the Belgian health system retains patients fairly well along the continuum of hypertension care, yet targeted health interventions to improve hypertension management for high-risk groups remain necessary, especially with regard to improving treatment rates.

Perinatal exposure to traffic related air pollutants and the risk of infection in the first six months of life: a cohort study from a low-middle income country.

OBJECTIVE: There is limited study from low-and-middle income countries on the effect of perinatal exposure to air pollution and the risk of infection in infant. We assessed the association between perinatal exposure to traffic related air pollution and the risk of infection in infant during their first six months of life. METHODS: A prospective cohort study was performed in Jakarta, March 2016-September 2020 among 298 mother-infant pairs. PM2.5, soot, NOx, and NO2 concentrations were assessed using land use regression models (LUR) at individual level. Repeated interviewer-administered questionnaires were used to obtain data on infection at 1, 2, 4 and 6 months of age. The infections were categorized as upper respiratory tract (runny nose, cough, wheezing or shortness of breath), lower respiratory tract (pneumonia, bronchiolitis) or gastrointestinal tract infection. Logistic regression models adjusted for covariates were used to assess the association between perinatal exposure to air pollution and the risk of infection in the first six months of life. RESULTS: The average concentrations of PM2.5 and NO2 were much higher than the WHO recommended levels. Upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) were much more common in the first six months of life than diagnosed lower respiratory tract or gastro-intestinal infections (35.6%, 3.5% and 5.8% respectively). Perinatal exposure to PM2.5 and soot suggested increase cumulative risk of upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) in the first 6 months of life per IQR increase with adjusted OR of 1.50 (95% CI 0.91; 2.47) and 1.14 (95% CI 0.79; 1.64), respectively. Soot was significantly associated with the risk of URTI at 4-6 months age interval (aOR of 1.45, 95%CI 1.02; 2.09). All air pollutants were also positively associated with lower respiratory tract infection, but all CIs include unity because of relatively small samples. Adjusted odds ratios for gastrointestinal infections were close to unity. CONCLUSION: Our study adds to the evidence that perinatal exposure to fine particles is associated with respiratory tract infection in infants in a low-middle income country.

Associations of psychosocial stress with type 2 diabetes and glycaemic control among Ghanaians: The RODAM study.

BACKGROUND: The extent to which psychosocial stress relates to type 2 diabetes among sub-Saharan Africans is not well understood. We assessed associations of psychosocial stresses with type 2 diabetes status and glycaemic control among Ghanaians. METHODS: We used data from Research on Obesity and Diabetes among African Migrants (RODAM) study. We performed logistic and linear regression models to assess association of psychosocial stresses with type 2 diabetes and HbA1c respectively with adjustments for age, sex, education and other stresses. We also assessed moderation effects of migration status (migrant Ghanaians vs. non-migrant Ghanaians), age, sex and education by adding interaction terms in models. RESULTS: Four thousand eight hundred and forty one Ghanaians were included with 44% resident in Ghana, 62% women, mean age of 46 years and 10% having type 2 diabetes. Psychosocial stress at home and at work were not associated with type 2 diabetes or HbA1c levels. Negative life events in past 12 months were negatively associated with type 2 diabetes (adjusted odds ratio = 0.93, 95% CI 0.87-0.99). Perceived discrimination was positively associated with type 2 diabetes (aOR = 1.01, 95% CI 1.004-1.03). Both associations were more pronounced in men. Perceived discrimination was also positively associated with HbA1c levels, especially among those with type 2 diabetes (adjusted ß = 0.01, 95% CI 0.007-0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Perceived discrimination and negative life events are associated with type 2 diabetes and glycaemic control among Ghanaians, especially in men. Further studies are needed to identify context-specific mechanisms underlying these associations.

Effectiveness of self-financing patient-led support groups in the management of hypertension and diabetes in low- and middle-income countries: Systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: There is insufficient evidence on the role of self-financing patient support groups in the control of blood pressure (BP) and/or diabetes in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). We conducted a systematic review to investigate the effectiveness of these groups in BP and glycaemic control. METHODS: We searched PubMed, Embase, SCOPUS, Web of Science, Global Health, African Journals Online, CINAHL and African Index Medicus for published peer-reviewed articles from inception up to November 2021. Grey literature was obtained from OpenGrey. Studies on patient support groups for hypertension and/or diabetes with a component of pooling financial resources, conducted in LMICs, were included. Narrative reviews, commentaries, editorials and articles published in languages other than English and French were excluded. Study quality and risk of bias were assessed using the National Institutes of Health Quality assessment tool and the revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. Results are reported according to PRISMA guidelines. RESULTS: Of 724 records screened, three studies met the criteria: two trials conducted in Kenya and a retrospective cohort study conducted in Cambodia. All studies reported improvement in BP control after 12 months follow-up with reductions in systolic BP of 23, 14.8, and 16.9 mmHg, respectively. Two studies reported diabetes parameters. The first reported improvement in HbA1c (reduction from baseline 10.8%, to 10.6% at 6 months) and random blood sugar (baseline 8.9 mmol/L, to 8.5 mmol/L at 6 months) but these changes did not achieve statistical significance. The second reported a reduction in fasting blood glucose (baseline-216 mg/dl, 12 months-159 mg/dl) in diabetic patients on medication. CONCLUSION: Self-financing patient support groups for diabetes and hypertension are potentially effective in the control of BP and diabetes in LMICs. More studies are needed to add to the scarce evidence base on the role of self-financing patient support groups.

Unmasking a silent killer: Prevalence of diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes mellitus among people living with HIV in rural South Africa.

OBJECTIVES: To document the prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and undiagnosed diabetes mellitus (DM) and to identify factors associated with undiagnosed DM in people living with HIV (PLWH). METHODS: Cross-sectional study performed at Ndlovu Medical Center, Limpopo, South Africa including PLWH aged ≥18 years. Between August and November 2017, 356 HIV-positive participants were included. Information was collected on socio-demographics, DM symptoms and risk factors for DM. IGT and DM were diagnosed using random plasma glucose and/or HbA1c. Factors associated with undiagnosed DM were assessed by comparing participants with newly diagnosed DM to participants without DM. RESULTS: IGT was diagnosed in 172 (48.3%) participants. Twenty-nine (8.1%) participants met the definition of DM, of whom 17 (58.6%) were newly diagnosed. Compared to participants without DM, participants with DM were on average 5 years older, were more likely to have a positive family history for DM, were less physically active and had higher systolic blood pressure, body mass index and waist circumference. Factors associated with undiagnosed DM included age ≥45 years (odds ratio [OR] = 3.59) and physical inactivity (OR = 3.17). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of IGT and DM among PLWH is high and more than half of DM cases were undiagnosed. Regular screening for DM in PLWH is recommended, especially in an ageing population with additional cardiovascular disease risk factors.

The effect of exposure to traffic related air pollutants in pregnancy on birth anthropometry: a cohort study in a heavily polluted low-middle income country.

BACKGROUND: Ambient air pollution has been recognized as one of the most important environmental health threats. Exposure in early life may affect pregnancy outcomes and the health of the offspring. The main objective of our study was to assess the association between prenatal exposure to traffic related air pollutants during pregnancy on birth weight and length. Second, to evaluate the association between prenatal exposure to traffic related air pollutants and the risk of low birth weight (LBW). METHODS: Three hundred forty mother-infant pairs were included in this prospective cohort study performed in Jakarta, March 2016-September 2020. Exposure to outdoor PM2.5, soot, NOx, and NO2 was assessed by land use regression (LUR) models at individual level. Multiple linear regression models were built to evaluate the association between air pollutants with birth weight (BW) and birth length (BL). Logistic regression was used to assess the risk of low birth weight (LBW) associated with all air pollutants. RESULTS: The average PM2.5 concentration was almost eight times higher than the current WHO guideline and the NO2 level was three times higher. Soot and NOx were significantly associated with reduced birth length. Birth length was reduced by - 3.83 mm (95% CI -6.91; - 0.75) for every IQR (0.74 × 10- 5 per m) increase of soot, and reduced by - 2.82 mm (95% CI -5.33;-0.30) for every IQR (4.68 µg/m3) increase of NOx. Outdoor air pollutants were not significantly associated with reduced birth weight nor the risk of LBW. CONCLUSION: Exposure to soot and NOx during pregnancy was associated with reduced birth length. Associations between exposure to all air pollutants with birth weight and the risk of LBW were less convincing.

Change in glycaemic control with structured diabetes self-management education in urban low-resource settings: multicentre randomised trial of effectiveness.

BACKGROUND: In high-resource settings, structured diabetes self-management education is associated with improved outcomes but the evidence from low-resource settings is limited and inconclusive. AIM: To compare, structured diabetes self-management education to usual care, in adults with type 2 diabetes, in low-resource settings. DESIGN: Single-blind randomised parallel comparator controlled multi-centre trial. Adults (> 18 years) with type 2 diabetes from two hospitals in urban Ghana were randomised 1:1 to usual care only, or usual care plus a structured diabetes self-management education program. Randomisation codes were computer-generated, and allotment concealed in opaque numbered envelopes. The intervention effect was assessed with linear mixed models. MAIN OUTCOME: Change in HbA1c after 3-month follow-up. Primary analysis involved all participants. CLINICALTRIAL: gov identifier:NCT04780425, retrospectively registered on 03/03/2021. RESULTS: Recruitment: 22nd until 29th January 2021. We randomised 206 participants (69% female, median age 58 years [IQR: 49-64], baseline HbA1c median 64 mmol/mol [IQR: 45-88 mmol/mol],7.9%[IQR: 6.4-10.2]). Primary outcome data was available for 79 and 80 participants in the intervention and control groups, respectively. Reasons for loss to follow-up were death (n = 1), stroke(n = 1) and unreachable or unavailable (n = 47). A reduction in HbA1c was found in both groups; -9 mmol/mol [95% CI: -13 to -5 mmol/mol], -0·9% [95% CI: -1·2% to -0·51%] in the intervention group and -3 mmol/mol [95% CI -6 to 1 mmol/mol], -0·3% [95% CI: -0·6% to 0.0%] in the control group. The intervention effect was 1 mmol/mol [95%CI:-5 TO 8 p = 0.726]; 0.1% [95% CI: -0.5, 0.7], p = 0·724], adjusted for site, age, and duration of diabetes. No significant harms were observed. CONCLUSION: In low-resource settings, diabetes self-management education might not be associated with glycaemic control. Clinician's expectations from diabetes self-management education must therefore be guarded.

Structured diabetes self-management education and glycaemic control in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review.

AIM: To determine the association between structured diabetes self-management education (DSME) and glycaemic control in persons living with diabetes (PLD) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). METHODS: PubMed, Embase and Cochrane databases were searched up to June 2020 for intervention studies on the effect of structured DSME on glycaemic control in PLD in LMICs (PROSPERO registration CRD42020164857). The primary outcome was reduction in glycated haemoglobin. Included studies were assessed for risk of bias (RoB) with the Cochrane RoB tool for randomised trials. Findings were summarized in a narrative synthesis. RESULTS: Out of 154 abstracts retrieved and screened for eligibility, nine studies with a total of 1389 participants were included in the review. The structured DSME interventions were culturally tailored and were delivered in-person. They were associated with reductions in glycated haemoglobin in all studies: mean/median reduction ranged between 0.5% and 2.6% relative to baseline. CONCLUSIONS: There is a dearth of literature on the association between structured DSME and glycaemic control among PLD in LMICs. The evidence available suggests that in LMICs; particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, structured DSME is associated with reduction in glycated haemoglobin. We recommend further intervention studies on the effects of structured DSME in LMICs.

Middle cerebral arterial flow redistribution is an indicator for intrauterine fetal compromise in late pregnancy in low-resource settings: A prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine the prevalence of abnormal umbilical artery (UA), uterine artery (UtA), middle cerebral artery (MCA) and cerebroplacental ratio (CPR) Doppler, and their relationship with adverse perinatal outcomes in women undergoing routine antenatal care in the third trimester. DESIGN: Prospective cohort. SETTING: Kagadi Hospital, Uganda. POPULATION: Non-anomalous singleton pregnancies. METHODS: Women underwent an early dating ultrasound and a third-trimester Doppler scan between 32 and 40 weeks of gestation, from 2018 to 2020. We handled missing data using multiple imputation and analysed the data using descriptive methods and a binary logistic regression model. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Composite adverse perinatal outcome (CAPO), perinatal death and stillbirth. RESULTS: We included 995 women. The mean gestational age at Doppler scan was 36.9 weeks (SD 1.02 weeks) and 88.9% of the women gave birth in a health facility. About 4.4% and 5.6% of the UA pulsatility index (PI) and UtA PI were above the 95th percentile, whereas 16.4% and 10.4% of the MCA PI and CPR were below the fifth percentile, respectively. Low CPR was strongly associated with stillbirth (OR 4.82, 95% CI 1.09-21.30). CPR and MCA PI below the fifth percentile were independently associated with CAPO; the association with MCA PI was stronger in small-for-gestational-age neonates (OR 3.75, 95% CI 1.18-11.88). CONCLUSION: In late gestation, abnormal UA PI was rare. Fetuses with cerebral blood flow redistribution were at increased risk of stillbirth and perinatal complications. Further studies examining the predictive accuracy and effectiveness of antenatal Doppler ultrasound screening in reducing the risk of perinatal deaths in low- and middle-income countries are warranted. TWEETABLE ABSTRACT: Blood flow redistribution to the fetal brain is strongly associated with stillbirths in low-resource settings.

PREvalence Study on Surgical COnditions (PRESSCO) 2020: A Population-Based Cross-Sectional Countrywide Survey on Surgical Conditions in Post-Ebola Outbreak Sierra Leone.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the burden of diseases requiring surgical care at national levels is essential to advance universal health coverage. The PREvalence Study on Surgical COnditions (PRESSCO) 2020 is a cross-sectional household survey to estimate the prevalence of physical conditions needing surgical consultation, to investigate healthcare-seeking behavior, and to assess changes from before the West African Ebola epidemic. METHODS: This study (ISRCTN: 12353489) was built upon the Surgeons Overseas Surgical Needs Assessment (SOSAS) tool, including expansions. Seventy-five enumeration areas from 9671 nationwide clusters were sampled proportional to population size. In each cluster, 25 households were randomly assigned and visited. Need for surgical consultations was based on verbal responses and physical examination of selected household members. RESULTS: A total of 3,618 individuals from 1,854 households were surveyed. Compared to 2012, the prevalence of individuals reporting one or more relevant physical conditions was reduced from 25 to 6.2% (95% CI 5.4-7.0%) of the population. One-in-five conditions rendered respondents unemployed, disabled, or stigmatized. Adult males were predominantly prone to untreated surgical conditions (9.7 vs. 5.9% women; p < 0.001). Financial constraints were the predominant reason for not seeking care. Among those seeking professional health care, 86.7% underwent surgery. CONCLUSION: PRESSCO 2020 is the first surgical needs household survey which compares against earlier study data. Despite the 2013-2016 Ebola outbreak, which profoundly disrupted the national healthcare system, a substantial reduction in reported surgical conditions was observed. Compared to one-time measurements, repeated household surveys yield finer granular data on the characteristics and situations of populations in need of surgical treatment.

Individual and contextual factors associated with under- and over-nutrition among school-aged children and adolescents in two Nigerian states: a multi-level analysis.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to identify individual and contextual factors that are associated with under- and over-nutrition among school-aged children and adolescents in two Nigerian states. DESIGN: Community-based cross-sectional study. SETTING: The study was carried out in rural and urban communities of Osun and Gombe States in Nigeria. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 1200 school-aged children and adolescents. RESULTS: Multi-level analysis showed that the full models accounted for about 82 % and 39 % of the odds of thinness or overweight/obese across the communities, respectively. Household size (adjusted OR (aOR) 1·10; P = 0·001; 95 % CI (1·04, 1·16)) increased the odds, while the upper wealth index (aOR 0·43; P = 0·016; 95 % CI (0·22, 0·86)) decreased the odds of thinness. Age (aOR 0·86; P < 0·001; 95 % CI (1·26, 8·70)), exclusive breastfeeding (aOR 0·46; P = 0·010; 95 % CI (0·25, 0·83)), physical activity (aOR 0·55; P = 0·001; 95 % CI (0·39, 0·78)) and the upper wealth index (aOR 0·47; P = 0·018; 95 % CI (0·25, 0·88)) were inversely related with overweight/obesity, while residing in Osun State (aOR 3·32; P = 0·015; 95 % CI (1·26, 1·70)), female gender (aOR 1·73; P = 0·015; 95 % CI (1·11, 2·69)) and screen time > 2 h/d (aOR 2·33; P = 0·005; 95 % CI (1·29, 4·19)) were positively associated with overweight/obesity. CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that selected community and individual-level factors are strongly associated with thinness and overweight/obesity among school-aged children and adolescents.

Poor cardiovascular health is associated with subclinical atherosclerosis in apparently healthy sub-Saharan African populations: an H3Africa AWI-Gen study.

BACKGROUND: The cardiovascular health index (CVHI) introduced by the American Heart Association is a valid, accessible, simple, and translatable metric for monitoring cardiovascular health in a population. Components of the CVHI include the following seven cardiovascular risk factors (often captured as life's simple 7): smoking, dietary intake, physical activity, body mass index, blood pressure, glucose, and total cholesterol. We sought to expand the evidence for its utility to under-studied populations in sub-Saharan Africa, by determining its association with common carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT). METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study involving 9011 participants drawn from Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa. We assessed established classical cardiovascular risk factors and measured carotid intima-media thickness of the left and right common carotid arteries using B-mode ultrasonography. Adjusted multilevel mixed-effect linear regression was used to determine the association of CVHI with common CIMT. In the combined population, an individual participant data meta-analyses random-effects was used to conduct pooled comparative sub-group analyses for differences between countries, sex, and socio-economic status. RESULTS: The mean age of the study population was 51 ± 7 years and 51% were women, with a mean common CIMT of 637 ± 117 µm and CVHI score of 10.3 ± 2.0. Inverse associations were found between CVHI and common CIMT (ß-coefficients [95% confidence interval]: Burkina Faso, - 6.51 [- 9.83, - 3.20] µm; Ghana, - 5.42 [- 8.90, - 1.95]; Kenya, - 6.58 [- 9.05, - 4.10]; and South Africa, - 7.85 [- 9.65, - 6.05]). Inverse relations were observed for women (- 4.44 [- 6.23, - 2.65]) and men (- 6.27 [- 7.91, - 4.64]) in the pooled sample. Smoking (p < 0.001), physical activity (p < 0.001), and hyperglycemia (p < 0.001) were related to CIMT in women only, while blood pressure and obesity were related to CIMT in both women and men (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: This large pan-African population study demonstrates that CVHI is a strong marker of subclinical atherosclerosis, measured by common CIMT and importantly demonstrates that primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in this understudied population should target physical activity, smoking, obesity, hypertension, and hyperglycemia.

Evaluating the cascade of care for hypertension in Sierra Leone.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the care for hypertension in Sierra Leone, by the use of a cascade-of-care approach, to identify where the need for healthcare system interventions is greatest. METHODS: Using data from a nationwide household survey on surgical conditions undertaken in 1956 participants ≥18 years from October 2019 to March 2020, a cascade of care for hypertension consisting of four categories - hypertensive population, those diagnosed, those treated and those controlled - was constructed. Hypertension was defined as having a blood pressure ≥140/90 mmHg, or self-reported use of antihypertensive medication. Logistic regression analysis was used to investigate factors associated with undiagnosed hypertension. RESULTS: The prevalence of hypertension was 22%. Among those with hypertension, 23% were diagnosed, 11% were treated and 5% had controlled blood pressure. The largest loss to care (77%) was between being hypertensive and receiving a diagnosis. Male sex, age and living in a rural location, were significantly associated with the odds of undiagnosed hypertension. There was no significant difference between men and women in the number of patients with controlled blood pressure. Adults aged 40 or older were observed to be better retained in care compared with those younger than 40 years of age. CONCLUSION: There is a significant loss to care in the care cascade for hypertension in Sierra Leone. Our results suggest that increasing awareness of cardiovascular risk and risk factor screening for early diagnosis might have a large impact on hypertension care.

Prevalence and determinants of chronic kidney disease in women with hypertensive disorders in pregnancy in Nigeria: a cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, hypertensive disorders in pregnancy (HDPs) complicate between 5 and 10% of pregnancies. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is disproportionately affected by a high burden of HDPs and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Despite mounting evidence associating HDPs with the development of CKD, data from SSA are scarce. METHODS: Women with HDPs (n = 410) and normotensive women (n = 78) were recruited at delivery and prospectively followed-up at 9 weeks, 6 months and 1 year postpartum. Serum creatinine was measured at all time points and the estimated glomerular filtration rates (eGFR) using CKD-Epidemiology equation determined. CKD was defined as decreased eGFR< 60 mL/min/1.73m2 lasting for ≥ 3 months. Prevalence of CKD at 6 months and 1 year after delivery was estimated. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to evaluate risk factors for CKD at 6 months and 1 year postpartum. RESULTS: Within 24 h of delivery, 9 weeks, and 6 months postpartum, women with HDPs were more likely to have a decreased eGFR compared to normotensive women (12, 5.7, 4.3% versus 0, 2 and 2.4%, respectively). The prevalence of CKD in HDPs at 6 months and 1 year postpartum was 6.1 and 7.6%, respectively, as opposed to zero prevalence in the normotensive women for the corresponding periods. Proportions of decreased eGFR varied with HDP sub-types and intervening postpartum time since delivery, with pre-eclampsia/eclampsia showing higher prevalence than chronic and gestational hypertension. Only maternal age was independently shown to be a risk factor for decreased eGFR at 6 months postpartum (aOR = 1.18/year; 95%CI 1.04-1.34). CONCLUSION: Prior HDP was associated with risk of future CKD, with prior HDPs being more likely to experience evidence of CKD over periods of postpartum follow-up. Routine screening of women following HDP-complicated pregnancies should be part of a postpartum monitoring program to identify women at higher risk. Future research should report on both the eGFR and total urinary albumin excretion to enable detection of women at risk of future deterioration of renal function.

Antenatal Doppler ultrasound implementation in a rural sub-Saharan African setting: exploring the perspectives of women and healthcare providers.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization recommends research to evaluate the effects of a single third trimester Doppler ultrasound examination on preventable deaths in unselected-risk pregnancies, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where the evidence base is scarce. While evaluating such technologies, researchers often ignore women and health care provider perspectives. This study explored the views and experiences of women and healthcare providers regarding the use of advanced ultrasound technology to optimize the health of mothers and their babies in a rural community in mid-western Uganda. METHODS: We enrolled 53 mothers and 10 healthcare providers, and captured data on their perceptions, barriers, and facilitators to the use of Doppler ultrasound technology using focus group discussions, semi-structured interviews and observations. Using qualitative content analysis, we inductively coded the transcripts in ATLAS.ti 8.0, detecting emerging themes. RESULTS: Women were afraid that ultrasound would harm them or their fetuses and many of them had never seen an ultrasound scan. The majority of the women found their partners supportive to attend antenatal care and use ultrasound services. Healthcare providers in Kagadi Hospital were unfamiliar with Doppler technology and using it to guide clinical decisions. Other barriers to the implementation of Doppler ultrasound included shortage of trained local staff, insufficient equipment, long distance to and from the hospital, and frequent power cuts. CONCLUSIONS: We found limited exposure to Doppler ultrasound technology among women and healthcare providers in mid-western Uganda. Engaging male partners may potentially influence the likelihood of accepting and using it to improve the health of women and their fetuses while wide spread myths and misconceptions about it may be changed by community engagement. Healthcare workers experienced difficulties in offering follow-up care to mothers detected with complications and Doppler ultrasound required a high level of training. While introducing advanced ultrasound machines to weak health systems, it is important to adequately train healthcare providers to avoid inappropriate interventions based on misinterpretation of the findings, consider where it is likely to be most beneficial, and embed it with realistic clinical practice guidelines.

Globally, nearly three million babies are stillborn every year, but most especially in low- and middle-income countries like Uganda. One of the factors contributing to a high number of stillbirths in low-income countries is the difficulty in identifying complications and accessing high quality care during pregnancy. Although antenatal Doppler scans are being widely used to diagnose complications in high-risk pregnancies in developed countries, studies evaluating it in LMICs are needed before it is implemented on a wide scale. We engaged 53 mothers, eight health workers from a hospital and two healthcare managers from a local government in Uganda to attain their opinions about Doppler ultrasound. We found that spousal involvement may promote acceptance and use of ultrasound services. However, the health workers did not have adequate knowledge about Doppler technology and using it for the benefit of mothers and the mothers feared that ultrasound procedures might harm them or their unborn babies. Making matters worse, the hospital faced frequent power cuts that affected the use of the equipment. Further, mothers must cover a long distance to access the hospital and its services. To reduce the number of babies dying during pregnancy or a few days after birth in Uganda and similar low-resource settings using Doppler technology, it is essential to strengthen the health systems. Starting with the training of healthcare providers to equipping and stabilizing power supply in health facilities, and educating the public about critical health procedures to break myths and misconceptions.

Obesity and adiposity of 3- to 6-year-old children born to mothers with hyperglycaemia first detected in pregnancy in an urban South African setting.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the association between maternal metabolic conditions in pregnancy and the risk of childhood overweight, a growing concern in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), helps to identify opportunities for childhood obesity prevention. AIM: To assess the association between hyperglycaemia first detected in pregnancy (HFDP) (gestational diabetes mellitus [GDM] and diabetes in pregnancy [DIP]) and child obesity and adiposity in pre-school-aged children in South Africa, independently of maternal BMI. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Measurement of anthropometry and fat mass index (FMI) by the deuterium dilution method was done for 102 3-6-year-old children born to mothers with HFDP and 102 HFDP-unexposed children. Hierarchical regression analysis and generalised structural equation modelling (GSEM) were performed. RESULTS: The prevalence of overweight/obesity was 10.5% and 11.1% in children exposed to GDM and DIP, respectively, and 3.9% in the HFDP-unexposed group. Log-transformed FMI was significantly higher in the DIP-exposed group (ß = 0.166, 95% CI = 0.014-0.217 p= .026), but not when adjusting for maternal pregnancy BMI (ß = 0.226, 95% CI = 0.003-0.015, p = .004). GSEM showed significant total effects of maternal BMI and birth weight on FMI/BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal pregnancy BMI seems to play a greater role in the development of childhood adiposity than maternal hyperglycaemia, requiring further research and identifying maternal BMI as a relevant prevention target in our setting.

Inverse Association between Iron Deficiency and Glycated Hemoglobin Levels in Ghanaian Adults-the RODAM Study.

BACKGROUND: Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) is often used to diagnose type 2 diabetes (T2D), but studies show that iron deficiency (ID) is associated with elevated HbA1c in the absence of hyperglycemia. It is unknown whether ID prevalence varies between sub-Saharan African populations living in different locations and whether ID influences HbA1c levels in these populations. OBJECTIVES: We assessed the prevalence of ID among Ghanaian migrants in Europe and nonmigrant Ghanaians, and the influence of ID on HbA1c categories among Ghanaians without T2D. METHODS: We used the database from the cross-sectional RODAM (Research on Obesity and Diabetes among African Migrants) study. This contained data on 3377 Ghanaian men and women aged 25-70 y living in urban and rural Ghana and Ghanaian migrants living in Amsterdam, London, and Berlin. ID was defined as ferritin < 15 ng/mL or, if C-reactive protein was ≥5 mg/mL, as ferritin < 30 ng/mL according to the WHO. We used binary logistic regression to assess differences in ID between sites and its association with clinically defined HbA1c categories (<5.5%, ≥5.5% to <6.5%, ≥6.5%). Men and women were analyzed separately. RESULTS: The prevalence of ID was higher in migrant [28.4%; adjusted OR (aOR): 3.08; 95% CI: 2.04, 4.65)] and urban (23.2%; aOR: 2.37; 95% CI: 1.56, 3.59) women than in rural women (11.9%). Among women, ID was associated with higher odds of HbA1c ≥ 5.5% to <6.5% in the absence of hyperglycemia (aOR: 1.43; 95% CI: 1.08, 1.87). This association was not found in men. CONCLUSIONS: Further research is needed to identify factors underlying the high prevalence of ID among urban and migrant Ghanaian women, and the association of ID with HbA1c ≥ 5.5% to <6.5% in women. In addition, our study reinforces the need to consider iron concentrations if interpreting HbA1c among African populations.

Coverage of intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy (IPTp) influences delivery outcomes among women with obstetric referrals at the district level in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to determine the coverage of intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy (IPTp) and its relationship with delivery outcomes among obstetric referral cases at the district level of healthcare. METHODS: An implementation research within three districts of the Greater Accra region was conducted from May 2017 to February 2018, to assess the role of an enhanced inter-facility communication system on processes and outcomes of obstetric referrals. A cross-sectional analysis of the data on IPTp coverage as well as delivery outcomes for the period of study was conducted, for all the referrals ending up in deliveries. Primary outcomes were maternal and neonatal complications at delivery. IPTp coverage was determined as percentages and classified as adequate or inadequate. Associated factors were determined using Chi square. Odds ratios (OR, 95% CI) were estimated for predictors of adequate IPTp dose coverage for associations with delivery outcomes, with statistical significance set at p = 0.05. RESULTS: From a total of 460 obstetric referrals from 16 lower level facilities who delivered at the three district hospitals, only 223 (48.5%) received adequate (at least 3) doses of IPTp. The district, type of facility where ANC is attended, insurance status, marital status and number of antenatal clinic visits significantly affected IPTp doses received. Adjusted ORs show that adequate IPTp coverage was significantly associated with new-born complication [0.80 (0.65-0.98); p = 0.03], low birth weight [0.51 (0.38-0.68); p < 0.01], preterm delivery [0.71 (0.55-0.90); p = 0.01] and malaria as indication for referral [0.70 (0.56-0.87); p < 0.01]. Positive association with maternal complication at delivery was seen but was not significant. CONCLUSION: IPTp coverage remains low in the study setting and is affected by type of health facility that ANC is received at, access to health insurance and number of times a woman attends ANC during pregnancy. This study also confirmed earlier findings that, as an intervention IPTp prevents bad outcomes of pregnancy, even among women with obstetric referrals. It is important to facilitate IPTp service delivery to pregnant women across the country, improve coverage of required doses and maximize the benefits to both mothers and newborns.

The effect of non-organophosphate household pesticides exposure during pregnancy on infants birth sizes and growth rate: a cohort study.

BACKGROUND: To date, there is limited evidence on the effect of antenatal exposure to non-organophosphate household pesticides on infant health. Our hypothesis is that antenatal exposure to non-organophosphate household pesticides will be associated with birth sizes and infant growth rate. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, 284 mother-infant pairs were studied. Mothers were recruited at the third trimester in two primary care centers and one private hospital in Jakarta, Indonesia. Mothers filled out questionnaires about exposure to non-organophosphate household pesticides at the 3rd trimester of pregnancy. Birth weight and length were measured at birth. Afterwards, the weight, height, and head circumference (HC) were measured at 7 days, 1, 2, 4, and 6 months of age. Linear mixed modeling and linear regression was performed to calculate growth rate of each infant. Multivariable linear regression adjusted for confounders was used to assess the association between household pesticides exposure and birth sizes and infant growth rate. RESULTS: Based on self-report questionnaires, 133 (46.8%) mothers were exposed to household pesticides during pregnancy. The mean HC at day 7 in the exposed group was - 7.1 mm (95%CI -13.1;-1.2) lower than in the non-exposed group. The difference was more prominent in the non-mosquito pesticide group (linear regression coefficient: - 22.1 mm, 95%CI -36.5;-7.6). No material associations were found between antenatal exposure to household pesticides with other growth measures, including weight gain, length gain, HC increment and weight-to-length gain rates. No modification of effects by breastfeeding was found. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that antenatal exposure to household non-organophosphate pesticides is associated with smaller head circumference at birth.