Photodegradation of CuBi2 O4 Films Evidenced by Fast Formation of Metallic Bi using Operando Surface-sensitive X-ray Scattering.

CuBi2 O4 has recently emerged as a promising photocathode for photo-electrochemical (PEC) water splitting. However, its fast degradation under operation currently poses a limit to its application. Here, we report a novel method to study operando the semiconductor-electrolyte interface during PEC operation by surface-sensitive high-energy X-ray scattering. We find that a fast decrease in the generated photocurrents correlates directly with the formation of a metallic Bi phase. We further show that the slower formation of metallic Cu, as well as the dissolution of the electrode in contact with the electrolyte, further affect the CuBi2 O4 activity and morphology. Our study provides a comprehensive picture of the degradation mechanisms affecting CuBi2 O4 electrodes under operation and poses the methodological basis to investigate the photocorrosion processes affecting a wide range of PEC materials.

Approaches to 'vulnerability' in eight European disaster management systems.

While social vulnerability in the face of disasters has received increasing academic attention, relatively little is known about the extent to which that knowledge is reflected in practice by institutions involved in disaster management. This study charts the practitioners' approaches to disaster vulnerability in eight European countries: Belgium; Estonia; Finland; Germany; Hungary; Italy; Norway; and Sweden. It draws on a comparative document analysis and 95 interviews with disaster managers and reveals significant differences across countries in terms of the ontology of vulnerability, its sources, reduction strategies, and the allocation of related duties. To advance the debate and provide conceptual clarity, we put forward a heuristic model to facilitate different understandings of vulnerability along the dimensions of human agency and technological structures as well as social support through private relations and state actors. This could guide risk analysis of and planning for major hazards and could be adapted further to particular types of disasters.

Using high-resolution ultrasound imaging to characterize dermal striae in human skin.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The improvement in the appearance of the skin with dermal striae (DS) is currently eval-uated by invasive methods, such as biopsy. This study evaluates whether high-resolution ultrasound (HRUS) could be used to identify skin lesions in vivo caused by DS, using 2D images and measuring the thickness of the dermal layer. METHODS: High-resolution ultrasound at frequencies of 20 and 30 MHz was used in this study in ten volunteers with DS. The thickness of the skin layers was estimated by tracing five vertical lines from epidermis (EP) to dermis (DE) and DE to hypodermis (H) surface. RESULTS: The dermal lesions caused by striae appeared in ultrasonic images as poor echo areas. The average normal DE thickness varied from 1.07 to 1.65 mm, while the DE thickness with DS varied between 0.35 and 1.33 mm. A statistically significant reduction in the DE thickness was found (P-value < .05) in the presence of DS. The mean values of the EP thickness without and with DS were 0.12 ± 0.03 mm and 0.11 ± 0.02 mm, respec-tively. A total of 90.00% of the EP-related groups did not present the normal distribu-tion (P-value < .05). CONCLUSIONS: High-resolution ultrasound permitted the visualization of the three skin layers and the dermal lesions caused by striae. The dermal layer thicknesses with striae were thinner than those without. Therefore, ultrasound 2D imaging has shown to be a promising and financially feasible tool to be used as a noninvasive diagnostic method for evaluating therapeutic protocols used in the treatment of these dermal conditions.

Evaluating the Performance of Functionalized Carbon Structures with Integrated Optical Fiber Sensors under Practical Conditions.

An Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometry (OFDR) based fiber optic sensor scheme "embedded" in concrete for the purpose of structural health monitoring (SHM) of carbon concrete composites (C³) is presented. The design, while strengthening the concrete structure, also aims to monitor common SHM parameters such as strain and cracks. This was achieved by weaving the carbon fiber together with optical fiber, based on a specialized technique that uses an embroidery setup where both the carbon and optical fiber are woven on a water dissolvable polymer substrate. The performance of the sensing scheme was characterized in-situ utilizing the OFDR based technique and the results presented. The sensors embedded on a custom made concrete block were subjected to varying strain via a three point bending test to destruction and the results discussed. The intended dual-achievement of the scheme thus proposed in SHM and strengthening the C³ is demonstrated. The suitability of the OFDR scheme for C³ is combined with a fibre Bragg grating (FBG)-based approach, and discussed in detail.

Interrelated dataset of rebound numbers, ultrasonic pulse velocities and compressive strengths of drilled concrete cores from an existing structure and new fabricated concrete cubes.

Two test series were examined using nondestructive measuring methods by six independent laboratories before determining their compressive strength. The nondestructive test methods used were the rebound hammer and ultrasonic pulse velocity measurement. Two types of geometries were investigated: drilled cores and cubes. The measurement procedure for each of these datasets is conditioned to the geometry and is therefore different. The first series consists of 20 drilled cores (approximately diameter/height = 10 cm/20 cm) from the 55-year-old Lahntal Viaduct near Limburg, Germany. After preparation in the first laboratory, the lateral surface of the drilled cores was tested with the rebound hammer using a given pattern. Every laboratory tested every drilled core at different locations. Ultrasonic measurements in transmission were performed repeatedly at predefined points on the flat surfaces of the specimen. The second series consisted of 25 newly manufactured concrete cubes of a mix with a target concrete strength class of C30/37. The edge length was 15 cm. Each laboratory received five specimens of this test series. Thus, contrary to the first series, each specimen was tested by only one laboratory. Two side faces of each cube were tested with the rebound hammer. In addition, ultrasonic measurements were performed by one laboratory. The time of flight was measured between the tested side faces of the rebound hammer at different positions. For both series, rebound hammers were used to determine the R-value as well as the Q-value. The rebound hammer models within the laboratories were always the same, while they differed between the laboratories. The ultrasonic measurements took place with different measurement systems and couplants. Finally, both specimen series were tested destructively for compressive strength. The dataset contains the raw data summarized in tabular form. In addition, relevant calculated data are included in some cases. For the ultrasonic measurements, the time of flight has already been converted into the ultrasonic velocity. Besides, in addition to the raw data of the compressive strength test (force, weight, and geometry values), the calculated compressive strengths and densities are also provided.

Self-imposed social isolation among clients of social care organisations in the COVID-19 pandemic.

Although self-imposed social isolation is an important way of reducing the risk of COVID-19 infection, previous research indicates that this behaviour varies substantially between different groups and individuals. Socially marginalized people are generally less involved in protective health behaviours, but there are few studies of their COVID-19 protective behaviours. The aims of the paper are therefore to: 1) compare self-imposed social isolation to avoid COVID-19 among socially marginalized groups, and to 2) examine factors influencing this, focusing especially on the role of social capital, risk awareness and sources of information about COVID-19. The study is based on survey data (N = 173) from people who are clients of social care organisations in Estonia, Norway, Hungary and Portugal. The sample involves clients living: a) in their homes, b) in facilities, and c) on the street or under temporary arrangements. Results indicate that the level of social isolation among the marginalized groups is comparable to that of the general population in previous studies. As hypothesized, we find that respondents living on the street or under temporary arrangements engage in less self-imposed social isolation than e.g. the respondents living in their homes. We also find lower levels of risk awareness, social capital and trust in authorities' information about COVID-19 among people living on the street or under temporary arrangements. Only linking social capital and trust in authorities' information was significantly related to respondents' social isolation, and not worry for COVID-19 infection. Thus, it seems that respondents largely self-isolated because of "duty" and not worry for infection.

Linear Relationship between the Effective Radiation Area and Thermal Images on a Thermochromatic Test Body with 1-MHz Ultrasonic Transducers.

The performance of therapeutic ultrasonic (TUS) devices has a high degree of variability because of the fragility of the equipment (its transducer in particular) and its handling. These facts raise doubts about the effectiveness and safety of treatments employing such devices. Currently there is no simple way to adequately verify the performance of these devices. In our first experiments, we used a thermochromatic test body (typically a cylindrical plate 3.7 cm in diameter and 5.8 mm high) irradiated with therapeutic transducers driven by a standard radiofrequency (RF) generator. Results revealed a linear relationship between the thermal image areas, generated by the transducer's irradiation, and their respective effective radiation areas (ERAs), suggesting a good correlation. With five 3-MHz transducers, our group also observed the linear relationship using commercial TUS RF driving devices. In the present work, we used four 1-MHz transducers with their respective TUS RF driving devices and verified that there is a linear relationship between the thermal images and the ERAs at intensities of 1.0 ± 0.1 and 0.5 ± 0.05 W/cm2. The linear relationship obtained at both intensities confirms the suggestion that these thermochromatic test bodies can be used as the first evaluation of the ERAs and can monitor their changes with use. Moreover, if a previous assessment of the ERA and transducer intensities is performed, it is possible to follow the variation in ERA simply by monitoring the test body thermal stain.

Recycled windshield glass as new material for producing ultrasonic phantoms of cortical bone-healing stages.

The quantitative ultrasound technique was used to evaluate bone-mimicking phantoms; however, these phantoms do not mimic the intermediate stages of cortical bone healing. We propose using windshield glass as an original material to produce phantoms that mimic the characteristics of three different stages of cortical bone healing. This material was processed via a route that included breaking, grinding, compacting, drying, and sintering in four temperature groups: 625 °C, 645 °C, 657 °C, and 663 °C. The parameters evaluated were the ultrasonic longitudinal phase velocity (cL), corrected (αc) ultrasonic attenuation coefficient, and bulk density (ρs). The results showed that the mean values ofcL,αc,andρsvaried from 2, 398 to 4, 406 m·s-1, 3 to 10 dB·cm-1, and 1, 563 to 2, 089 kg·m-3, respectively. The phantoms exhibited properties comparable with the three stages of cortical bone healing and can be employed in diagnostic and therapeutic studies using ultrasound.

Method for estimating average grey-level's measurement uncertainty from ultrasound images for non-invasive estimation of temperature in different tissue types.

The objective of this work is to assess, on metrological basis, the average grey-levels (AVGL) calculated from B-Mode images for estimating temperature variations non-invasively in different kinds of tissues. Thermal medicine includes several thermal therapies, being hyperthermia the most noted and well known. Recently, efforts have been made to understand the benefits of ultrasound hyperthermia at mild temperature levels, i.e., between 39 °C and 41 °C. Moreover, the best practices on ultrasound bio-effects research have been encouraged by recommending that temperature rise in the region of interest should be measured even when a thermal mechanism is not being tested. In this work, the average grey-levels (AVGL) calculated from B-Mode images were assessed for non-invasive temperature estimation in a porcine tissue sample containing two different tissue types, fat and muscle, with temperature varying from 35 °C to 41 °C. The sample was continuously imaged with an ultrasound scanner, and simultaneously the temperature was measured. The achieved results were assessed under the light of the measurement uncertainty in order to allow comparability among different ultrasound thermometry methods. The highest expanded uncertainty of estimating temperature variation using AVGL was determined as 0.68 °C.

EXPLORING CORTICAL BONE DENSITY THROUGH THE ULTRASOUND INTEGRATED REFLECTION COEFFICIENT.

OBJECTIVE: This work evaluates the relationship between ultrasonic reflection and bone density from fourteen cylindrical bovine cortical bone samples (3.0-cm thick). METHODS: Twenty US reflection signals per sample were acquired along the bone surface (2.0-mm step). The Integrated Reflection Coefficient (IRC) from each signal was compared to Quantitative Computed Tomography (QCT). RESULTS: Seven IRC and QCT curves presented Pearson's Correlation R-values above 0.5. For weak correlation curves, QCT and IRC showed similar trends in several segments. CONCLUSION: IRC was sensitive to bone density variation. Level of Evidence: Experimental Study, Investigating a Diagnostic Test.

OBJETIVO: Este estudo avalia a relação entre a reflexão ultrassônica e a densidade óssea de 14 amostras cilíndricas de osso cortical bovino (3,0 cm de espessura). MÉTODOS: Foi realizada a aquisição de 20 sinais de reflexão ultrassônica por amostra (passo de 2,0 mm), ao longo da superfície óssea. O Coeficiente de Reflexão Integrado (IRC) de cada sinal foi comparado por Tomografia Computadorizada Quantitativa (QCT). RESULTADOS: Sete curvas de IRC e QCT apresentaram valor de Correlação R de Pearson acima de 0,5. Para curvas de correlação fraca, QCT e IRC apresentaram tendências semelhantes em vários segmentos. CONCLUSÃO: O IRC foi sensível à variação da densidade óssea. Nível de evidência: Estudo Experimental, Investigação de Exame Diagnóstico.

PVCP-based anthropomorphic breast phantoms containing structures similar to lactiferous ducts for ultrasound imaging: A comparison with human breasts.

The purpose of this work was to obtain an anthropomorphic phantom with acoustic properties similar to those of breast tissue, possessing lactiferous duct-like structures, which would be a first for this type of phantom. Breast lesions usually grow in glandular tissues or lactiferous ducts. Shape variations in these structures are detectable by using ultrasound imaging. To increase early diagnosis, it is important to develop computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) systems and improve medical training. Using tissue-like materials that mimic known internal structures can help achieve both of these goals. However, most breast ultrasound phantoms described in the literature emulate only fat tissues and lesion-like masses. In addition, commercially available phantoms claim to be realistic, but do not contain lactiferous duct structures. In this work, we collected reference images from both breasts of ten healthy female volunteers aged between 20 and 30 years using a 10 MHz linear transducer of a B-mode medical ultrasound system. Histograms of the grey scale distribution of each tissue component of interest, the grey level means, and standard deviations of the regions of interest were obtained. Phantoms were produced using polyvinyl chloride plastisol (PVCP) suspensions. The lactiferous duct-like structures were prepared using pure PVCP. Solid scatterers, such as alumina (mesh #100) and graphite powders (mesh #140) were added to the phantom matrix to mimic glandular and fat tissue, respectively. The phantom duct-like structure diameters observed on B-mode images (1.92 mm ±â€¯0.44) were similar to real measures obtained with a micrometer (2.08 mm ±â€¯0.23). The phantom ducts are easy to produce and are largely stable for at least one year. This phantom allows the researchers to elaborate the structure at their will and may be used in training and as a reference for development of CAD systems.

Monitoring bone changes due to calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus loss in rat femurs using Quantitative Ultrasound.

Bone mineral density is an important parameter for the diagnosis of bone diseases, as well as for predicting fractures and treatment monitoring. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the potential of Quantitative Ultrasound (QUS) to monitor bone changes after calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium loss in rat femurs in vitro during a demineralization process. Four quantitative ultrasound parameters were estimated from bone surface echoes in eight femur diaphysis of rats. The echo signals were acquired during a decalcification process by Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid (EDTA). The results were compared to Quantitative Computed Tomography (QCT) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry measurements for validation. Integrated Reflection Coefficient (IRC) reflection parameters and Frequency Slope of Reflection Transfer Function (FSRTF) during demineralization tended to decrease, while the backscattering parameter Apparent Integrated Backscatter (AIB) increased and Frequency Slope of Apparent Backscatter (FSAB) showed an oscillatory behavior with no defined trend. Results indicate a clear relation between demineralization and the corresponding decrease in the reflection parameters and increase in the scattering parameters. The trend analysis of the fall curve of the chemical elements showed a better relationship between IRC and QCT. It was possible to monitor bone changes after ions losses, through the QUS. Thus, it is an indication that the proposed protocol has potential to characterize bone tissue in animal models, providing consistent results towards standardization of bone characterization studies by QUS endorsing its use in humans.

Why we should care about soft tissue interfaces when applying ultrasonic diathermy: an experimental and computer simulation study.

BACKGROUND: One goal of therapeutic ultrasound is enabling heat generation in tissue. Ultrasound application protocols typically neglect these processes of absorption and backscatter/reflection at the skin/fat, fat/muscle, and muscle/bone interfaces. The aim of this study was to investigate the heating process at interfaces close to the transducer and the bone with the aid of computer simulation and tissue-mimicking materials (phantoms). METHODS: The experimental setup consists of physiotherapeutic ultrasound equipment for irradiation, two layers of soft tissue-mimicking material, and one with and one without an additional layer of bone-mimicking material. Thermocouple monitoring is used in both cases. A computational model is used with the experimental parameters in a COMSOL® software platform. RESULTS: The experimental results show significant temperature rise (42 °C) at 10 mm depth, regardless of bone layer presence, diverging 3 °C from the simulated values. The probable causes are thermocouple and transducer heating and interface reverberations. There was no statistical difference in the experimental results with and without the cortical bone for the central thermocouple of the first interface [t(38) = -1.52; 95% CI = -0.85, 0.12; p = 14]. Temperature rise (>6 °C) close to the bone layer was lower than predicted (>21 °C), possibly because without the bone layer, thermocouples at 30 mm make contact with the water bath and convection intensifies heat loss; this factor was omitted in the simulation model. CONCLUSIONS: This work suggests that more attention should be given to soft tissue layer interfaces in ultrasound therapeutic procedures even in the absence of a close bone layer.

Influence of ultrasonic scattering in the calculation of thermal dose in ex-vivo bovine muscular tissues.

This study explores the effect of ultrasound scattering on the temperature increase in phantoms and in samples of ex-vivo biological tissue through the calculation of the thermal dose (TD). Phantoms with different weight percentages of graphite powder (0-1%w/w, different scattering mean free paths, ℓS) and ex-vivo bovine muscle tissue were isonified by therapeutic ultrasound (1 MHz). The TD values were calculated from the first 4 min of experimental temperature curves obtained at several depths and were compared with those acquired from the numerical solution of the bio-heat transfer equation (simulated with 1 MHz and 0.5-2.0 W cm(-2)). The temperature curves suggested that scattering had an important role because the temperature increments were found to be higher for higher percentages of graphite powder (lower ℓS). For example, at a 30-mm depth and a 4-min therapeutic ultrasound application (0.5 W cm(-2)), the TDs (in equivalent minutes at 43 °C) were 7.2, 17.8, and 58.3 for the phantom with ℓS of 4.35, 3.85, and 3.03 mm, respectively. In tissue, the inclusion of only absorption or full attenuation in the bio-heat transfer equation (BHTE) heat source term of the simulation leads to under- or overestimation of the TD, respectively, as compared to the TD calculated from experimental data. The experiments with phantoms (with different scatterer concentrations) and ex-vivo samples show that the high values of TD were caused by the increase of energy absorption due to the lengthening of the propagation path caused by the changing in the propagation regime.

Thermochromic Phantom and Measurement Protocol for Qualitative Analysis of Ultrasound Physiotherapy Systems.

Thermochromic test bodies are promising tools for qualitatively evaluating the acoustic output of ultrasound physiotherapy systems. Here, a novel phantom, made of silicone mixed with thermochromic powder material, was developed. Additionally, a procedure was developed to evaluate the stability and homogeneity of the phantom in a metrologic and statistical base. Twelve phantoms were divided into three groups. Each group was insonated by a different transducer. An effective intensity of 1.0 W/cm(2) was applied to each phantom; two operators performed the procedure three times in all phantoms. The heated area was measured after image processing. No statistical difference was observed in the heated areas for different samples or in the results for different operators. The heated areas obtained using each transducer were statistically different, indicating that the thermochromic phantom samples had sufficient sensitivity to represent the heated areas of different ultrasonic transducers. Combined with the evaluation procedure, the phantom provides an approach not previously described in the literature. The proposed approach can be used to quickly assess changes in ultrasonic beam cross-sectional shape during the lifetime of ultrasound physiotherapy systems.

The influence of low-intensity physiotherapeutic ultrasound on the initial stage of bone healing in rats: an experimental and simulation study.

BACKGROUND: Low-intensity physiotherapeutic ultrasound has been used in physical therapy clinics; however, there remain some scientific issues regarding the bone-healing process. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of low-intensity physiotherapeutic ultrasound on the initial stage of bone healing in rats. METHODS: Twenty-two male adult rats were assessed quantitatively and qualitatively using radiographic, biochemical, and histological analyses. Numerical simulations were also performed. Fractures in animals in the ultrasound group (n = 11) were treated with low-intensity ultrasound (pulsed mode, duty cycle 20 %) for 10 min daily at an intensity of 40 mW/cm2 SATA (1.0 MHz) for 10 days. Fractures in animals in the control group (n = 11) were not treated. RESULTS: Alkaline phosphatase levels were non-significantly higher in the ultrasound group than in the control group in the time intervals considered (t(13) = 0.440; 95 % confidence interval (CI) -13.79 to 20.82; p = 0.67). Between-group serum calcium levels were also not significantly different (t(13) = -0.842; 95 % CI -0.48 to 0.21; p = 0.42). Finally, there were no significant differences in radiological scores between the two groups (U = 118; 95 % CI -1.99 to 1.99; p = 0.72). However, the diameter of the newly formed bone tissue was greater and more evident in the ultrasound group. CONCLUSIONS: Thirteen days after fracture, there was no significant between-group differences in bone-healing processes, although the increased alkaline phosphatase levels and diameter of new bone tissue need to be further investigated.

Polyvinyl chloride plastisol breast phantoms for ultrasound imaging.

Ultrasonic phantoms are objects that mimic some features of biological tissues, allowing the study of their interactions with ultrasound (US). In the diagnostic-imaging field, breast phantoms are an important tool for testing performance and optimizing US systems, as well as for training medical professionals. This paper describes the design and manufacture of breast lesions by using polyvinyl chloride plastisol (PVCP) as the base material. Among the materials available for this study, PVCP was shown to be stable, durable, and easy to handle. Furthermore, it is a nontoxic, nonpolluting, and low-cost material. The breast's glandular tissue (image background) was simulated by adding graphite powder with a concentration of 1% to the base material. Mixing PVCP and graphite powder in differing concentrations allows one to simulate lesions with different echogenicity patterns (anechoic, hypoechoic, and hyperechoic). From this mixture, phantom materials were obtained with speed of sound varying from 1379.3 to 1397.9ms(-1) and an attenuation coefficient having values between 0.29 and 0.94dBcm(-1) for a frequency of 1MHz at 24°C. A single layer of carnauba wax was added to the lesion surface in order to evaluate its applicability for imaging. The images of the phantoms were acquired using commercial ultrasound equipment; a specialist rated the images, elaborating diagnoses representative of both benign and malignant lesions. The results indicated that it was possible to easily create a phantom by using low-cost materials, readily available in the market and stable at room temperature, as the basis of ultrasonic phantoms that reproduce the image characteristics of fatty breast tissue and typical lesions of the breast.

Doppler ultrasound tracking instrument for monitoring blood flow velocity.

Doppler ultrasound (US) is potentially a valuable method for monitoring changes of blood flow velocity over a period of many minutes or even hours, but is seldom used in this way. One difficulty that may have contributed to this is the problem of maintaining a fixed geometry between the US beam and the blood vessel. A method of improving the success of monitoring might be to actively steer the US beam so as to maintain an adequate signal even when small displacements of the transducer occur. We have designed and built a prototype system for this purpose. The system comprises a continuous-wave phased-array transducer controlled by a purpose-built Doppler unit. The system constantly evaluates the quality of the returning Doppler signal in terms of total power and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) (evaluated by assessing the quality of derived envelope signals), and steers the ultrasonic beam in a manner so as to improve the signal, should this be necessary. The system was tested in vitro, where the automatic tracking of the Doppler signal doubled the effective beam width of the transducer. Further developments that increase sensitivity and steering range should result in US Doppler systems that are better suited to long-term monitoring.

Exploring cortical bone density through the ultrasound integrated reflection coefficient / Densidade óssea cortical analisada pelo coeficiente de reflexão ultrassônica

ABSTRACT Objective: This work evaluates the relationship between ultrasonic reflection and bone density from fourteen cylindrical bovine cortical bone samples (3.0-cm thick). Methods: Twenty US reflection signals per sample were acquired along the bone surface (2.0-mm step). The Integrated Reflection Coefficient (IRC) from each signal was compared to Quantitative Computed Tomography (QCT). Results: Seven IRC and QCT curves presented Pearson's Correlation R-values above 0.5. For weak correlation curves, QCT and IRC showed similar trends in several segments. Conclusion: IRC was sensitive to bone density variation. Level of Evidence: Experimental Study, Investigating a Diagnostic Test.

RESUMO Objetivo: Este estudo avalia a relação entre a reflexão ultrassônica e a densidade óssea de 14 amostras cilíndricas de osso cortical bovino (3,0 cm de espessura). Métodos: Foi realizada a aquisição de 20 sinais de reflexão ultrassônica por amostra (passo de 2,0 mm), ao longo da superfície óssea. O Coeficiente de Reflexão Integrado (IRC) de cada sinal foi comparado por Tomografia Computadorizada Quantitativa (QCT). Resultados: Sete curvas de IRC e QCT apresentaram valor de Correlação R de Pearson acima de 0,5. Para curvas de correlação fraca, QCT e IRC apresentaram tendências semelhantes em vários segmentos. Conclusão: O IRC foi sensível à variação da densidade óssea. Nível de evidência: Estudo Experimental, Investigação de Exame Diagnóstico.

Evaluation of gloves as a water bag coupling agent for therapeutic ultrasound

Abstract Introduction Therapeutic ultrasound (TUS) is a widespread modality in physiotherapy, and the water bag technique is a coupling method employed in the presence of anatomical irregularities in the treatment area. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the acoustic attenuation of the water bag and its effectiveness as a TUS coupling agent. Methods The rated output powers (ROPs) of the TUS equipment were evaluated based on IEC 61689. Then, a radiation force balance was used to measure ROP with and without a water bag (latex and nitrile gloves filled with deionized water) between a TUS transducer and the cone-shaped target of the balance. Each experiment was performed five times for each nominal power (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, and 7.0 W) and in the following configurations: without the water bag (A), with nitrile gloves and with (B) and without (C) a height controller, and latex gloves with (D) and without (E) height controller. ROPs obtained in different media were compared. Results The highest relative error of ROP was 16.72% for 0.5 W. Although the power values of the equipment were within the range recommended by IEC, there was a significant difference between the ROP values measured with A and with B, C and D. Conclusion As intensity differences below 0.5 W/cm2 are considered clinically not relevant, conditions A, B, C, D, or E can be used interchangeably.