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For retention intervals of up to 12 h, the active systems consolidation hypothesis predicts that sleep compared to wakefulness strengthens the context binding of memories previously established during encoding. Sleep should thus improve source memory. By comparing retention intervals filled with natural night sleep versus daytime wakefulness, we tested this prediction in two online source-monitoring experiments using intentionally learned pictures as items and incidentally learned screen positions and frame colors as source dimensions. In Experiment 1, we examined source memory by varying the spatial position of pictures on the computer screen. Multinomial modeling analyses revealed a significant sleep benefit in source memory. In Experiment 2, we manipulated both the spatial position and the frame color of pictures orthogonally to investigate source memory for two different source dimensions at the same time, also allowing exploration of bound memory for both source dimensions. The sleep benefit on spatial source memory replicated. In contrast, no source memory sleep benefit was observed for either frame color or bound memory of both source dimensions, probably as a consequence of a floor effect in incidental encoding of color associations. In sum, the results of both experiments show that sleep within a 12-h retention interval improves source memory for spatial positions, supporting the prediction of the active systems consolidation hypothesis. However, additional research is required to clarify the impact of sleep on source memory for other context features and bound memories of multiple source dimensions.
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Individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) are correlated with long-term memory (LTM) differences. Whether this is because high-WMC individuals encode more effectively, resulting in better LTM storage, or because they better retrieve information from LTM is debated. In two experiments, we used Bayesian-hierarchical multinomial modeling to correlate participant-level storage and retrieval processes from LTM recall to WMC abilities estimated from operation and symmetry complex span tasks. In Experiment 1, we presented participants with 20 consecutive words, including semantically associated pairs (e.g., knife and fork), to assess LTM processes. Participants received standard (n = 242) or associative-storage instructions (n = 222) and then completed a free recall task. In Experiment 2, we instructed participants (N = 239) to memorize 40 cue-target words as pairs before completing free and cued recall tasks. Correlations with WMC emerged with storage and retrieval processes and only when an associative storage strategy was instructed (Experiment 1). When associative processing was inherent to the task (Experiment 2), only the associative storage, not the retrieval advantage, replicated. The strategy reports suggest that high-WMC individuals use associative encoding strategies more effectively, resulting in better storage in LTM.
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Previous research on whether source memory is enhanced for emotionally valenced sources yielded inconclusive results. To identify potential boundary conditions, we tested whether encoding instructions that promote affective versus different types of non-affective item-source-processing foster versus hamper source-valence effects. In both experiments, we used neutral words as items superimposed on emotional (positive & negative) or neutral pictures as sources. Source pictures were selected based on valence and arousal ratings collected in a pre-study such that only valence varied across sources. Source memory was measured via multinomial modelling. In Experiment 1, we applied an affective, item-focused orienting task (OT; i.e. word-pleasantness ratings) during item-source encoding and found enhanced source memory for emotionally valenced (positive & negative) compared to neutral sources. In Experiment 2, we systematically manipulated encoding instructions and again found enhanced source memory for emotionally valenced sources with an affective OT. No such effects occurred in the non-affective conditions, where participants were instructed to integrate item and source (item-source-fit judgments), to focus on the item (living-non-living judgments), or to encode the items only, respectively. With intentional item encoding, however, source memory was surprisingly better for positive than negative sources. We conclude that source-valence effects might unfold only under affective processing.
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Emociones , Humanos , Femenino , Masculino , Adulto Joven , Adulto , Memoria , Afecto , Nivel de Alerta , Estimulación Luminosa , AdolescenteRESUMEN
Multinomial processing tree (MPT) models are a broad class of statistical models used to test sophisticated psychological theories. The research questions derived from these theories often go beyond simple condition effects on parameters and involve ordinal expectations (e.g., the same-direction effect on the memory parameter is stronger in one experimental condition than another) or disordinal expectations (e.g., the effect reverses in one experimental condition). Here, we argue that by refining common modeling practices, Bayesian hierarchical models are well suited to estimate and test these expectations. Concretely, we show that the default priors proposed in the literature lead to nonsensical predictions for individuals and the population distribution, leading to problems not only in model comparison but also in parameter estimation. Rather than relying on these priors, we argue that MPT modelers should determine priors that are consistent with their theoretical knowledge. In addition, we demonstrate how Bayesian model comparison may be used to test ordinal and disordinal interactions by means of Bayes factors. We apply the techniques discussed to empirical data from Bell et al. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41, 456-472 (2015).
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Teorema de Bayes , Modelos Estadísticos , Humanos , Modelos PsicológicosRESUMEN
OBJECTIVES: It is examined whether older adults' cognitive ability in terms of delayed recall and verbal fluency is improving over time, whether this occurs over all educational levels and both sexes, and whether these changes are due to increasing proportions of individuals with higher education. METHODS: Analyses are based on the German samples of the Survey on Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (waves 2004 and 2013). RESULTS: Achievement levels increased over time and in all age groups. Improvements over educational levels occurred in parallel, differences between educational levels in the earlier survey were later reproduced at higher levels. Increasing proportions of individuals with higher education did not explain improvements of cognitive ability. No sex differences emerged. CONCLUSION: Improved cognitive abilities could not be explained by upward shifts of educational levels. Improvements in higher age groups may foster improved health status and prolonged self-determined life in the older population.
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Envejecimiento , Trastornos del Conocimiento , Masculino , Femenino , Humanos , Anciano , Envejecimiento/psicología , Cognición , Jubilación , Trastornos del Conocimiento/epidemiología , Escolaridad , Instituciones AcadémicasRESUMEN
Emotion-enhanced memory (EEM) describes the robust memory advantage of emotional over non-emotional stimuli. While extensively investigated with emotional items, it is unclear whether the EEM effect extends to source memory for a neutral item's emotional context. In two pre-registered studies, we systematically manipulated source valence (positive, negative) between participants and source arousal (high, low, neutral-low) within participants. In Experiment 1 (lab study, N = 80), we used emotional sound sources and presented them together with neutral pictures as items. In Experiment 2 (online study, N = 172), we used emotional background pictures with superimposed neutral item words to similarly manipulate source emotionality. Multinomial model-based analysis showed no general effects of valence or arousal on source memory across both experiments. Source memory was impaired for the negative high-arousing source in Experiment 1 but this did not replicate in Experiment 2. Altogether, we conclude that there are no memory-enhancing effects of source emotionality (valence, arousal, or any specific combination thereof) on source memory, dissociating emotionality effects between source and item memory. Additionally, we propose that material-dependent influences carry more weight if the used emotional material is limited in number, as is the case in the standard source-monitoring paradigm employing few sources only.
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Nivel de Alerta , Emociones , HumanosRESUMEN
People do not always have accurate metacognitive awareness of the conditions that lead to good source memory. In Experiment 1, participants studied words referring to bathroom and kitchen items that were either paired with an expected or unexpected room as the source. Participants provided judgments of item and source learning after each item-source pair. In line with previous studies, participants incorrectly predicted their memory to be better for expected than for unexpected sources. Here, we show that this metamemory expectancy illusion generalizes to socially relevant stimuli. In Experiment 2, participants played a prisoner's dilemma game with trustworthy-looking and untrustworthy-looking partners who either cooperated or cheated. After each round of the game, participants provided metamemory judgments about how well they were going to remember the partner's face and behavior. On average, participants predicted their source memory to be better for behaviors that were expected based on the facial appearances of the partners. This stands in contrast to the established finding that veridical source memory is better for unexpected than expected information. Asking participants to provide metamemory judgments at encoding selectively enhanced source memory for the expected information. These results are consistent with how schematic expectations affect source memory and metamemory for nonsocial information, suggesting that both are governed by general rather than by domain-specific principles. Differences between experiments may be linked to the fact that people may have special beliefs about memory for social stimuli, such as the belief that cheaters are particularly memorable (Experiment 3).
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Ilusiones , Memoria , Metacognición , Adolescente , Adulto , Femenino , Humanos , Juicio , Aprendizaje , Masculino , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
AIM: This study assessed lifestyle-related risk factors for cardiovascular disease in young women with Turner syndrome. METHODS: In 2012, we sent a questionnaire to women with Turner syndrome aged ≥18 years and living in Switzerland with questions on socio-demographic and medical data as well as health behaviour. We compared the reported lifestyle with that of women from the Swiss Health Survey 2012, a representative survey of the general population. RESULTS: Fifty-seven per cent (45/79) of women with Turner syndrome answered the questionnaire (mean age: 24 years). Eighty per cent (36/45) had never smoked compared with 58% (1156/1972) of the general population (p < 0.01). Women with Turner syndrome engaged less often in binge drinking (34% vs. 71%) (p < 0.001), but consumed alcohol equally often as the general population (p = 0.327). They performed sports as often as the general population (p = 0.34), but only one quarter (11/45) of women with Turner syndrome adhered to official physical activity recommendations. CONCLUSION: Although most women with Turner syndrome had a healthy lifestyle, only a minority had sufficient physical activity. Paediatricians should promote structured physical activity in girls with Turner syndrome from early childhood onwards to reduce their cardiovascular risk in adulthood and to increase long-term health-related quality of life.
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Síndrome de Turner , Adolescente , Adulto , Preescolar , Femenino , Conductas Relacionadas con la Salud , Humanos , Estilo de Vida , Calidad de Vida , Suiza , Síndrome de Turner/complicaciones , Síndrome de Turner/epidemiología , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
The present research aimed to devise a test of source recognition that facilitates access to source information stored in memory. Therefore, we extended the standard source-monitoring paradigm, in which items are presented in a source-neutral manner during test, by a second, subsequent test with source reinstatement. In this second test, items (i.e., words) were presented with both study sources (i.e., two speakers) consecutively such that for originally studied words, one test presentation was the exact reinstatement of the original source. To validate our assumption that the test with reinstatement primarily assesses source storage, we manipulated source storage by varying encoding frequency between-participants (repetition vs. no repetition of each item-source-pair). Additionally, we varied source similarity between-participants (similar vs. dissimilar speakers). Data analyses (N = 146) based on multinomial and signal detection models showed a source memory enhancement in the second test with reinstatement compared to the first standard test, especially for similar sources. Additionally, repetition selectively benefited source memory in the second test, validating our interpretation of the second test as a measure for source storage. Altogether, our novel source recognition test offers a promising method for investigating various well-known source memory phenomena more comprehensively.
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Memoria , Reconocimiento en Psicología , Humanos , Recuerdo MentalRESUMEN
The probability-matching account states that learned specific episodic contingencies of item types and source dominate over general schematic expectations in source guessing. However, recent evidence from Bell et al. [(2020). Source attributions for detected new items: Persistent evidence for schematic guessing. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 73(9), 1407-1422] suggest that this only applies to source guessing for information that is recognised as belonging to a previously encoded episode. When information was detected as being new, participants persisted in applying schematic knowledge about the sources' profession. This dissociation in source guessing for detected-old and detected-new information may have been fostered by the specific source-monitoring paradigm by Bell et al. (2020) in which sources were a group of individuals in a certain profession rather than fixed persons from that profession for whom episodic contingencies are more likely to persist also for new information. The aim of the present study was to test whether source guessing for detected-old versus detected-new information also dissociates in a more typical source-monitoring task, the doctor-lawyer paradigm, in which one individual doctor and one lawyer present profession-related information. Despite this change in paradigm, source guessing was based on the item-source contingency only for detected-old information, whereas schematic knowledge persisted for detected-new information. The present study thus adds evidence for persistent schema-based source guessing for new information.
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Conocimiento , Aprendizaje , Probabilidad , Adolescente , Adulto , Humanos , Masculino , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
When people need to infer the source of information in the absence of memory, they may rely on general knowledge (e.g., stereotypes) to guess the source. Prior research documented task-related determinants and individual differences of stereotype reliance in source guessing, but little is known about the underling nature of this process. In two experiments, we tested whether a cognitive trait could account for the knowledge reliance in source guessing. Participants performed two distinct study-test cycles of a classical source-monitoring paradigm in which two person sources present stereotypical information that in a later test phase had to be attributed to its origin. In Experiment 1, both tasks used item material from the same knowledge domain (age stereotypes) and were either separated by 10 minutes or 7 days. In Experiment 2, we used item material from two different knowledge domains (Task 1: age stereotypes; Task 2: gender stereotypes). Although cross-task correlations of source-guessing parameters from Bayesian-hierarchical multinomial processing tree model analyses showed only weak positive correlations, absolute source guessing remained fairly stable within individuals across time (Experiment 1) and knowledge domains (Experiment 2). Considering statistical challenges of the assessment of relative stability via correlations, we suggest based on the stricter absolute stability criterion that source guessing rather encompasses trait-like features. We discuss implications regarding the generalizability and nature of source guessing in comparison to other cognitive processes involved in source attribution, which were highly stable in both experiments.
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Individualidad , Estereotipo , Pensamiento/fisiología , Adulto , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
Prospective memory (PM) is remembering to fulfill intentions in the future. Interference of unfulfilled intentions with ongoing activities reflects the allocation of attention to the PM task. Prior research has shown that, when people know in which specific context PM cues will occur, attention allocation is adaptive, with slower responses in the PM-relevant context. We examined whether people flexibly adjust their attention allocation when the PM-context association is unknown at intention encoding and must be learned on-task. Different stimulus shapes represented contexts in an ongoing task, with PM cues only occurring in trials with one specific shape. Participants informed about the PM-relevant shape responded more slowly on trials with this shape. Participants instructed that only one, unspecified shape was PM-relevant learned the PM-context association and also allocated attention flexibly, depending on context relevance. However, participants with no context-related information at intention encoding failed to learn the PM-context association, resulting in inflexible attention allocation and poorer PM performance. The present study provides evidence that people can flexibly update their attention-allocation policy, and thereby optimize their PM performance after initial intention encoding, but self-guided learning of intention-context associations appears to be limited.
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Atención/fisiología , Señales (Psicología) , Intención , Memoria Episódica , Adolescente , Adulto , Humanos , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
Researchers have become increasingly aware that data-analysis decisions affect results. Here, we examine this issue systematically for multinomial processing tree (MPT) models, a popular class of cognitive models for categorical data. Specifically, we examine the robustness of MPT model parameter estimates that arise from two important decisions: the level of data aggregation (complete-pooling, no-pooling, or partial-pooling) and the statistical framework (frequentist or Bayesian). These decisions span a multiverse of estimation methods. We synthesized the data from 13,956 participants (164 published data sets) with a meta-analytic strategy and analyzed the magnitude of divergence between estimation methods for the parameters of nine popular MPT models in psychology (e.g., process-dissociation, source monitoring). We further examined moderators as potential sources of divergence. We found that the absolute divergence between estimation methods was small on average (<.04; with MPT parameters ranging between 0 and 1); in some cases, however, divergence amounted to nearly the maximum possible range (.97). Divergence was partly explained by few moderators (e.g., the specific MPT model parameter, uncertainty in parameter estimation), but not by other plausible candidate moderators (e.g., parameter trade-offs, parameter correlations) or their interactions. Partial-pooling methods showed the smallest divergence within and across levels of pooling and thus seem to be an appropriate default method. Using MPT models as an example, we show how transparency and robustness can be increased in the field of cognitive modeling. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).
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Cognición , Humanos , Cognición/fisiología , Modelos Psicológicos , Modelos Estadísticos , Interpretación Estadística de Datos , Teorema de BayesRESUMEN
Congenital portosystemic shunts are often associated with systemic complications, the most challenging of which are liver nodules, pulmonary hypertension, endocrine abnormalities, and neurocognitive dysfunction. In the present paper, we offer expert clinical guidance on the management of liver nodules, pulmonary hypertension, and endocrine abnormalities, and we make recommendations regarding shunt closure and follow-up.
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[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2023.100933.].
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To investigate whether making performance predictions affects prospective memory (PM) processing, we asked one group of participants to predict their performance in a PM task embedded in an ongoing task and compared their performance with a control group that made no predictions. A third group gave not only PM predictions but also ongoing-task predictions. Exclusive PM predictions resulted in slower ongoing-task responding both in a nonfocal (Experiment 1) and in a focal (Experiment 2) PM task. Only in the nonfocal task was the additional slowing accompanied by improved PM performance. Even in the nonfocal task, however, was the correlation between ongoing-task speed and PM performance reduced after predictions, suggesting that the slowing was not completely functional for PM. Prediction-induced changes could be avoided by asking participants to additionally predict their performance in the ongoing task. In sum, the present findings substantiate a role of metamemory for attention-allocation strategies of PM.
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Atención/fisiología , Predicción , Memoria Episódica , Adolescente , Adulto , Humanos , Memoria/fisiología , Distribución Aleatoria , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
The present study investigated whether we first remember an item (e.g., a word itself) and then its source (e.g., position on the screen) or whether the retrieval of item and source information can (partially) overlap. Participants were tested on the source either in immediate sequence to item recognition (as standard in source-monitoring research) or following as a separate block after full completion of the item recognition test to separate these processes in time, providing a baseline. Using the mouse-tracking procedure during the item and source tests, we analyzed how item and source decisions unfolded qualitatively over time. Despite no significant difference in the aggregated trajectory curvatures, more thorough analyses based on the individual trajectories revealed differences across the test formats. In the standard format, trajectories were less curved in the source than in the item test. In contrast, in the blocked format, this difference was in the other direction with source showing more curved trajectories than item. Alternative interpretations of mouse-trajectory curvatures on the source-monitoring paradigm and what their difference may imply for item and source processing are discussed.
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Memoria , Recuerdo Mental , Humanos , Reconocimiento en PsicologíaRESUMEN
The goal of our research was to investigate whether older adults show a source memory enhancement for emotionally valenced sources. Additionally, building on research on the socioemotional selectivity theory and the age-related positivity effect, we tested whether older adults show a larger enhancement for positive compared to negative (and neutral) sources than younger adults. In Experiment 1 (nold = 25, nyoung = 27), we used one positive, one negative, and one neutral picture to manipulate source valence (many-to-one mapping of items to sources), whereas, in Experiment 2 (nold = 62, nyoung = 62), we used multiple pictures per source valence category (one-to-one mapping of items to sources) to counteract potential habituation effects. In both experiments, sources had medium and matching arousal levels. Items were neutral words superimposed on the source pictures. To support an implicit, natural information processing, participants rated the words in terms of pleasantness. We analyzed memory data with a multinomial processing tree model to disentangle memory processes from guessing bias. Across both experiments, an age-related positivity effect occurred in participants' pleasantness ratings. This effect, however, did not carry over to older adults' source memory. That is, in source memory, we found a general emotionality effect for younger but not for older adults and no age-related positivity effect. We propose that due to older adults' pronounced difficulties in remembering the item-to-source link (i.e., associative deficit), even a greater focus on an inherently emotional source might be insufficient to boost source memory.
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Item memory and source memory are different aspects of episodic remembering. To investigate metamemory differences between them, the authors assessed systematic differences between predictions of item memory via Judgments of Learning (JOLs) and source memory via Judgments of Source (JOSs). Schema-based expectations affect JOLs and JOSs differently: Judgments are higher for expected source-item pairs (e.g., "nightstand in the bedroom") than unexpected pairs (e.g., "bed in the bathroom"), but this expectancy effect is stronger on JOSs than JOLs (Schaper et al., 2019b). The current study tested theoretical underpinnings of this difference. Due to semantic priming, JOLs should be influenced by the consistency between an item and any of the schemas activated at study. JOSs, however, should be influenced by the (in)consistency between an item and its actual source. In three experiments, source-item pairs varied in strength of consistency and inconsistency. Participants provided item-wise JOLs and JOSs. Regardless of an items' actual source, JOLs were higher the more consistent an item was with any of the source schemas, but only if that schema was activated by occurring as a source at study. JOLs were also biased by the actual source: JOLs were lower the more inconsistent an item was with its actual source. By contrast, JOSs were primarily influenced by an item's (in)consistency with its actual source (positively for consistency, negatively for inconsistency). Thus, participants metacognitively differentiated item memory and source memory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
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Metacognición , Humanos , Aprendizaje , Recuerdo Mental , Juicio , Bases de Datos FactualesRESUMEN
OBJECTIVES: Limited evidence exists regarding the reasons for secular changes in cognitive functioning over historical time. Thus, we examined potential explanatory factors for changes in cognitive speed, a central dimension of cognitive functioning. METHODS: Population-based data of middle-aged and older adults from Germany (N = 5443) was used with baseline participants from 2002 to 2014, comparing the time periods 2002-2014. RESULTS: Cognitive speed improved in middle-aged adults (40-65) and older adults (66+). In both age groups, increases were partly explained by education, employment status, volunteering status, routine activities, and physical functioning. Changes in education were more important in explaining increases in older than in middle-aged adults, whereas changes in health were more important for explaining increases in middle-aged adults. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive speed increased in both age groups over historical time. Education, employment, volunteering, routine activities, and health were all important in explaining these changes, but their importance differed between age groups.